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GG5: Sustainable Food Supply – Key Concepts Sustainable Food Supply Word Bank Key Term/Concept Abbots Hall Farm Aeroponics Agribusiness Definition A farm purchased by Essex Wildlife Trust on the Blackwater Estuary to be used as a ‘demonstration’ farm to show how arable farming and biodiversity can co-exist through a programme of agricultural diversification (using different types of crops) and habitat management i.e. improving hedgerows and field margins, planting in of hedge-banks, promoting the use of IPM whilst decreasing the use of pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers. (You should have made key point notes on this farm as a detailed/specific case study of the positive impact of agric diversification on the environment). Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in an air or mist environment without the use of soil or an aggregate medium. The basic principle of aeroponic growing is to grow plants in a closed or semi-closed environment by spraying the plant's roots with a nutrient rich solution. Ideally, the environment is kept free from pests and disease so that the plants may grow healthier and quicker than plants grown in a medium In agriculture, agribusiness is a generic term that refers to the various businesses involved in food production, including farming and contract farming, seed supply, agrichemicals, farm machinery, wholesale and distribution, processing, marketing, and retail sales. Among critics of large-scale, industrialized, vertically integrated food production, the term agribusiness is used as a negative, synonymous with corporate farming. As such, it is often contrasted ALURE Amenity value of landscape Antinatalist policy Aphids Bioaccumulation with family farm. Some negative connotation is also derived from the negative associations of "business" and "corporation" from critics of capitalism or corporate excess. A package of agricultural policies used by the UK Government in the 1980’s to promote diversification. ALURE = Alternative Land Uses in the Rural Environment i.e. promoting non-agricutural activities on farm land e.g. treeplanting/farm woodland scheme, grants for promoting rural recreational activities etc. Environmental or landscape benefit of the landscape rather than their commercial value as farming land. Traditional farming landscapes have a high amenity value with their picture postcard scenes of patchwork fields, hedgerows, scattered woodland, ponds etc. Modern agribusiness farming has transformed the landscape with a resultant loss of amenity value i.e. large monocultivation systems with a loss of hedges, woods, ponds and modern farm buildings etc A deliberate demographic policy aimed at fertility reduction e.g. China’s ‘One Child Policy’ in the 1970s had a target of ZPG. The Chinese government introduced the policy in 1979 to alleviate social, economic, and environmental problems. The authorities claim that the policy has prevented more than 250 million births from its implementation to 2000.The policy is controversial because it is implicated in an increase in forced abortions and female infanticide, and has caused China's significant gender imbalance. However, China’s total fertility rate (TFR) is now as low as the UK at 1.7 children, so is below replacement level but population momentum keeps it growing. Aphids, also known as plant lice (and in Britain as greenflies),are small plant-eating insects. Aphids are among the most destructive insect pests on cultivated plants such as wheat in temperate regions. They have a very high reproductive rate and so the population can double in 4 - 6 days. This means that they are a good source of food to other creatures including Ladybirds and their larvae, lacewings, hoverfly larvae and parasitic wasps. However, broad spectrum pesticides have eliminated many of their natural biological controls allowing massive aphid infestations and this necessitates the need for more pesticide use resulting in the ‘pesticide treadmill’. Process producing an increase in the concentration of chemicals (usually toxins) in the tissues of organisms with each increase in the trophic level in the food chain. Examples include poloychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) which reach their greatest concentrations in predatory birds which are apex predators. Biodiversity The variety of living things/species in an environment. Biodiversity is the variation of life forms within a given ecosystem, biome, or for the entire Earth. Biodiversity is often used as a measure of the health of biological systems. Intensive arable farming has resulted in the simplification of ecosystems due to a focus on monocultivation systems (single crop species) resulting in a loss of biological diversity as hedges, woods and ponds disappear, and with them the wildlife that depend upon these habitats. Biofuels Biomass or biofuel is material derived from recently living organisms. This includes plants, animals and their by-products. For example, manure, garden waste and crop residues are all sources of biomass. It is a renewable energy source based on the carbon cycle, unlike other natural resources such as petroleum, coal, and nuclear fuels. It is used to produce power, heat & steam and fuel, through a number of different processes. There are two common strategies of producing liquid and gaseous agrofuels. One is to grow crops high in sugar (sugar cane, sugar beet, and sweet sorghum) or starch (corn/maize), and then use yeast fermentation to produce ethyl alcohol (ethanol). The second is to grow plants that contain high amounts of vegetable oil, such as oil palm, soybean. When these oils are heated, their viscosity is reduced, and they can be burned directly in a diesel engine, or they can be chemically processed to produce fuels such as biodiesel. Although renewable, biomass often involves a burning process that produces emissions such as Sulphur Dioxide (SO2), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and Carbon Dioxide (CO2), but fortunately in quantities far less than those emitted by coal plants. As energy prices rise more and more agricultural land is given over to biofuel production. BOD – Biological Oxygen Demand This refers to the amount of oxygen needed by bacteria and decomposers to break down the organic pollution matter e.g. animal slurry that is released into a river. If there is a large quantity of organic waste in the water supply, there will also be a lot of bacteria present working to decompose this waste. In this case, the demand for oxygen will be high (due to all the bacteria) so the BOD level will be high. As the waste is consumed or dispersed through the water, BOD levels will begin to decline. When BOD levels are high, dissolved oxygen (DO) levels decrease because the oxygen that is available in the water is being consumed by the bacteria. Since less dissolved oxygen is available in the water, fish and other aquatic organisms may not survive. Biomagnification or bioamplification The increasing concentration of persistent chemicals e.g. PCBs/DDT at higher trophic levels. The chemicals build up in the fatty tissue of the higher order consumers resulting in toxic poisoning, organ damage, cancers, birth defects etc Boserup (Boserupian theory or view point) A Danish agricultural economist who was a resource optimist. She stated that the prospect of food scarcity and rising prices associated with population growth would stimulate improvements in agricultural technology and an increase in yield i.e. agricultural intensification. An example is the Green Revolution in India and China when western-centric technologies were used to dramatically increase food production and improve food security. The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is a system of European Union agricultural subsidies and programs. It represents 48% of the EU's budget, €49.8 billion in 2006.The CAP combines a direct subsidy payment for crops and land which may be cultivated with price support mechanisms, including guaranteed minimum prices, import tariffs and quotas on certain goods from outside the EU. Reforms of the system are currently underway reducing import controls and transferring subsidy to land stewardship rather than specific crop production (phased from 2004 to 2012). In the UK DEFRA is responsible for implementing CAP and its reforms. CAP – Common Agricultural policy Club of Rome The Club of Rome is a global think tank that was founded in April 1968 and raised considerable public attention in 1972 with its report The Limits to Growth. It predicted a doom-laden scenario for industrial societies unless they adpopted more sustainable life styles. They are modern-day Malthusians or NeoMalthusians. Three main conclusions were reached by this study. The first suggests that within a time span of less than 100 years with no major change in the physical, economic, or social relationships that have traditionally governed world development, society will run out of the nonrenewable resources on which the industrial base depends. When the resources have been depleted, a precipitous collapse of the economic system will result, manifested in massive unemployment, decreased food production, and a decline in population as the death rate soars. There is no smooth transition, no gradual slowing down of activity; rather, the economic system consumes successively larger amounts of the depletable resources until they are gone. The characteristic behaviourr of the system is overshoot and collapse. However, their immediate predictions were not realised because of economic and technological factors i.e. price rises and discovery of new resources etc. Commercial farming Commercial agriculture: The production of crops for sale or widespread distribution to wholesalers or retail outlets e.g. supermarkets. Commercial agriculture includes livestock production and livestock grazing. Commercial agriculture does not include crops grown for household consumption i.e. subsistence farming. Curry Commission/Report The Report of the Policy Commission on the Future of Farming and Food (The Curry Report) was published in January 2002. It had been established in August 2001, having been set up "to advise the Government on how we can create a sustainable, competitive and diverse farming and food sector which contributes to a thriving and sustainable rural economy, advances environmental, economic, health and animal welfare goals, and is consistent with the Government's aims for Common Agricultural Policy reform, enlargement of the EU and increased trade liberalisation DEFRA Defra (the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs) is a Government Department in the UK.The overarching challenge for Defra is to secure a healthy environment in which we and future generations can prosper. As we build a low carbon, resource efficient economy, Defra helps people to adapt to changes, deals with environmental risks and makes the most of the opportunity we now have to secure a sustainable society and a healthy environment. This will help see us through the difficult economic times, volatile food and energy prices and a changing climate which all make us more aware that we can’t take our environment for granted. DEFRA is responsible for managing all aspects of our rural environment including food production. Demographic strategy A policy adopted by a government with a specific population objective i.e. China’s anti-natalist ‘One Child’ Policy aimed to control the rate of pop’n growth. Deoxygenation of water Diversification of agriculture The process of removing dissolved oxygen from a liquid, such as water. This occurs when organic waste e.g. animal slurry is added to a water body or during the process of eutrophication when algal growth can cause deoxygenation. Farm diversification can reduce your dependence on conventional agricultural production and can make better use of your farm’s physical resources. Around 50 per cent of farms in the UK supplement traditional incomes through farm diversification. The likelihood is with the reform of the Common Agricultural policy and de-coupling of subsidy away from production that the need to diversify will become an integral part of running many farm businesses. The following are examples of diversification activities outside the core farm business: accommodation - e.g. bed & breakfast, holiday cottages, camping and caravan sites ; retail outlets and catering facilities e.g. farm shop, tea-room/café, or restaurant ; rural tourism and recreation - e.g. trekking holidays; visitor attractions; mountain biking/walking routes; clay pigeon shooting, archery, hot air ballooning; adding value to agricultural products - e.g. ready-made meals or direct meat sales; alternative use of redundant farm buildings - e.g. offices; making and/or selling nonagricultural food products - e.g. cakes, preserves, beer; development (including training) and promotion of rural crafts e.g. - thatching, dry-stone walling, hedge-laying, hurdle making, charcoal making etc Diversification into alternative agricultural products The production of novel and/or niche agricultural products can have the capacity to generate higher returns, for example: livestock products – e.g. sheep cheese, Angora wool, rare breed meat, venison, fish, wild boar, goat dairying, ostriches etc crop products – e.g. speciality flowers, vineyards, crops for alternative use e.g. pharmaceutical or energy crops D02 – Dissolved Oxygen Adequate dissolved oxygen is necessary for good water quality. Oxygen is a necessary element to all forms of life. Natural stream purification processes require adequate oxygen levels in order to provide for aerobic life forms. As dissolved oxygen levels in water drop below 5.0 mg/l, aquatic life is put under stress. The lower the concentration, the greater the stress. Oxygen levels that remain below 1-2 mg/l for a few hours can result in large fish kills. Ehrlich – Paul Modern day resource pessismist or Neo- Malthusian who challenged the ideas of Paul Ehrlich. He published a well known book The Population Bomb, in which he predicted that "In the 1970s and 1980s . . . hundreds of millions of people are going to starve to death in spite of any crash programs embarked upon now. Julian Simon criticised his ideas and his predictions were not realised, because of technological advances in agriculture i.e. the Green Revolution. However, his predictions did hold true for parts of Africa which continues to be affected by food insecurity and by periodic famines. Environmental stewardship Environmental Stewardship is an agri-environment scheme manged by DEFRA that provides funding to farmers and other land managers in England who deliver effective environmental management on their land. Environmental Stewardship is a Governmentfunded scheme open to all farmers, which funds the delivery of environmental benefits through agriculture. The scheme aims to conserve wildlife, maintain and enhance our landscape quality and character, protect our natural resources, and promote public access to the countryside. Environmental Stewardship is the latest phase of 21 years of agri-environment schemes which have brought real benefit to the countryside. Ethical food sourcing What does sustainable sourcing mean?Sustainable sourcing ensures, to the best of the food chain’s ability, that products or goods that are being purchased have no or a limited negative impact on the communities and ecosystems that they are sourced from. The three key areas to focus on to establish sustainable sourcing: Respect human rights and reduce poverty by creating profitable trading Work within the finite limits of the planet’s resources Move towards a low carbon economy During the practice of these three key areas there Eutrophication should be no compromise to a continual improvement to animal welfare standards. Eutrophication is an increase in chemical nutrients — compounds containing nitrogen or phosphorus — in an ecosystem, and may occur on land or in water. However, the term is often used to mean the resultant increase in the ecosystem's primary productivity (excessive plant (algae) growth and decay), and further effects including lack of oxygen and severe reductions in water quality, fish, and other animal populations. Eutrophication is frequently a result of nutrient pollution, such as the release of sewage effluent, urban stormwater run-off, and run-off carrying excess fertilizers into natural waters. Famine Famine is a widespread shortage of which is usually accompanied by regional malnutrition, starvation, epidemic, and increased mortality. Causes can be natural and human. Fasilia A Canadian flower that is used in UK hedge banks because it attracts hover flies that lay their eggs on the wheat stalks which then hatch and feed on the aphid larvae, thus acting as a natural biological control, reducing the need for expensive and environmentally damaging pesticides. Fertilisers Plants need nutrients as well as carbon dioxide and water for photosynthesis. When plants are harvested the nutrients are removed with them. In a natural ecosystem the plants would eventually die and decay, with the nutrients being returned to the soil. Farmers need to use fertilisers containing these nutrients to maintain productivity. Farmers can use organic fertilisers or inorganic fertilisers. Increasing the amount of fertiliser increases yield, up to a point. Inorganic This is known as the law of diminishing returns. Organic manufactured e.g. ammonium nitrate animal manure, sewage sludge has concentrated amounts of macronutrients may contain important micronutrients more easily leached from the soil adds organic matter which improves soil structure manure is a good way can be applied in of recyling the manure smaller amounts as it produced on mixed is concentrated farms easy to handle and spread on the fields smelly Fertilizers are chemical compounds applied to promote plant and fruit growth. Fertilizers are usually applied either through the soil (for uptake by plant roots) or, by foliar feeding (for uptake through leaves). FEWS – Famine early warning system Food aid Food supply chain Food insecurity/security Food miles Famine Early Warning Systems Network (FEWS NET ) is a lead organization in the field of prediction and response to famines and other forms of food security. Funded by the United States Agency for International Development since its creation in 1985, it analyzes a variety of data and information, such as market prices of food, precipitation and crop failures to predict when and where food insecurity will occur, and issues alerts on predicted crises. Food aid is hard to summarize succinctly due to many related issues, but in general it is about providing food and related assistance to tackle hunger, either in emergency situations, or to help with deeper, longer term hunger alleviation and achieve food security (where people do not have to live in hunger or in fear of starvation). This refers to all activities in the agri-food industry from farm to fork i.e. farming, distribution, processing, retailing etc Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it. A household is considered food secure when its occupants do not live in hunger or fear of starvation. According to the World Resources Institute, global per capita food production has been increasing substantially for the past several decades.In 2006, MSNBC reported that globally, the number of people who are overweight has surpassed the number who are undernourished - the world had more than one billion people who were overweight, and an estimated 800 million who were undernourished. China, the world's most populous country, is suffering from an obesity epidemic. Worldwide around 852 million people are chronically hungry due to extreme poverty, while up to 2 billion people lack food security intermittently due to varying degrees of poverty (source: FAO, 2003). As of late 2007, increased farming for use in biofuels, world oil prices at more than $100 a barrel, global population growth, climate change, loss of agricultural land to residential and industrial development, and growing consumer demand in China and India ]have pushed up the global price of grain thus increasing the risk of food insecurity, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa. Food miles is a term which refers to the distance food is transported from the time of its production until it reaches the consumer. It is one dimension used in assessing the environmental impact of food. High food miles increases the ecological = carbon footprint of the food production system. DEFRA is trying to promote local food sourcing as a more sustainable approach to food production. GM Crops and Gene Revolution Genetically modified crops could form part of the answer to world hunger, according to a United Nations report. With the world population set to rise by two billion over the next 30 years, such crops could help meet food needs. Drought and insect-resistant crops could boost yields and incomes, the United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) says. But it warns that biotechnology is no panacea and must focus on the needs of developing countries. Biotechnology holds great promise for agriculture in developing countries, but so far only farmers in a few developing countries are reaping these benefits, FAO said in its annual report 'The State of Food and Agriculture 2003-04'. Basic food crops of the poor such as cassava, potato, rice and wheat receive little attention by scientists, FAO said. "Neither the private nor the public sector has invested significantly in new genetic technologies for the socalled 'orphan crops' such as cowpea, millet, sorghum and tef that are critical for the food supply and livelihoods of the world's poorest people," said FAO Director-General Dr Jacques Diouf. Green revolution The introduction of high-yielding varieties of seeds after 1965 and the increased use of fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation are known collectively as the Green Revolution, which provided the increase in production needed to make India, China and other LEDCs self sufficient in grains, thus reducing food insecurity. Use Boserup’s graph/model to illustrate. But there were negative aspects to the adoption of the Green Revolution technology i.e. social and economic disparities between rich v low income farmers and regions; pesticide treadmill, pressure on water resources etc. Hedge-banks Hedgebanks are a quick way of reintroducing natural biological controls to farming. Farmers can plough in hedge banks that are no more than earth mounds that are seeded with wildflowers which may be divided into dry earth banks that are covered with wildflowers in the spring time, and also create much taller hedgebanks that have mature trees and shrubs to replace the hedgerows and woodland lost in the recent/modern agricultural revolution. Hedgebanks attract insects e.g. hoverfly, ladybirds that can then act as natural biological controls on crop pests like aphids (see picture opposite). The hedgebanks act as ecological corridors within the farm and prevent localised extinction and islandisation of crop pest predators. Hydroponics Hydroponics is a method of growing plants using mineral nutrient solutions, without soil. Terrestrial plants may be grown with their roots in the mineral nutrient solution Indicator species Plant or animal whose presence or absence in an area indicates certain environmental conditions, such as soil type, high levels of pollution, or, in rivers, low levels of dissolved oxygen. Populations of common birds are ideal for the purposes of producing indicators; they are thought to be a good indicator of the state of the environment as they occupy a wide range of habitats, tend to be near the top of the food chain and long-term data are readily available to assess population changes. The UK Government are using studies of wild birds to monitor environmental improvements in farming. Intensification of agriculture Agricultural intensification is an increase in the productivity of existing land and water resources in the production of food and cash crops, livestock, forestry, and aquaculture. Generally it is associated with increased use of external inputs i.e. machinery, HYVs, fertilisers, pesticides, irrigation etc. The Green Revolution in India/China and intensiver arable farming in Essex demonstrate this. However, Intensification of agriculture is a major cause of habitat degradation as shown in intensive arable farming systems in E Anglia/Essex. These are leading to the degradation of agricultural and semi-natural habitats, causing declines in biodiversity across huge areas. Intervention pricing This is the minimum market price set by the EU in its CAP price support system. It is always set 10-20% below the target price, and is the price that the EU is obliged to buy at, thus guaranteeing a minimum price to farmers for their products. This resulted in large surpluses in the food supply chain i.e. food mountains and lakes. IPM – Integrated pest management In agriculture, integrated pest management (IPM) is a pest control strategy that uses both natural biological controls and restricted use of pesticides. It is a more sustainable approach to pest control and frees farmers from the pesticide treadmill. Loam is soil composed of sand, silt, and clay in relatively even concentration (about 40-40-20% concentration respectively), considered ideal for gardening and agricultural uses. Loam soils generally contain more nutrients and humus than sandy soils, have better infiltration and drainage than silty soils, and are easier to till than clay soils. Loam soil Local sourcing of food The UK's big four supermarkets have all said they are committed to sourcing foods locally as much as possible. Tesco, Asda, Sainsbury's and Morrisons were responding to a report which said it was most environmentally friendly to buy food that had been made locally. This reduces the ‘road’ and ‘air’ miles that food is transported and helps reduce the carbon footprint of the food supply chain. Malthus – Malthusian theory. Named after English economist the Reverend THOMAS ROBERT MALTHUS (1766-1834), who believed that population would increase at a geometric rate and the food supply at an arithmetic rate.This disharmony would lead to widespread poverty and starvation which would only be checked by natural occurrences such as disease, high infant mortality, famine, war or moral restraint. Malthusian population theory was eventually dismissed for its pessimism and failure to take into account technological advances in agriculture and food production. However, aspects of Malthusian theory are applicable to Sub-Saharan Africa where food insecurity results in periodic famines. Neo-Malthusians Modern day resource pessimists that hold similar views to Malthus with regards to the relationship between population and food supply. For example: Paul Ehrlich and the Club of Rome. Organic farming Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on crop rotation, green manure, compost, biological pest control, and mechanical cultivation to maintain soil productivity and control pests, excluding or strictly limiting the use of synthetic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides, plant growth regulators, livestock feed additives, and genetically modified organisms. Since 1990, the market for organic products has grown at a rapid pace. Oxygen sag Occasionally in bodies of water, large amounts of dead fish may turn up, having died all at once in a catastrophic environmental disaster known as "oxygen sag." Oxygen sag is the dip in dissolved oxygen present in water that is the result of the introduction of waste material. Typically bacteria present in the water congregate near the food source (waste) and consume oxygen. Pesticides Defined as any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying or controlling any pest, including vectors of human or animal disease, unwanted species of plants or animals causing harm during or otherwise interfering with the production, processing, storage, transport or marketing of food, agricultural commodities, 'Pesticide' is a broad term, covering a range of products that are used to control pests. insect killers (insecticides) mould and fungi killers (fungicides) weedkillers (herbicides) slug pellets (molluscicides) plant growth regulators bird and animal repellents, and rat and mouse killers (rodenticides) Excessive use of pesticides causes bioaccumulation, biomagnification, and as they are broad spectrum they kill off natural biological controls resulting in pest epidemics and pest mutation causing pesticide resistance which then traps farmers on a ‘pesticide treadmill’ Ref to rice brown plant hopper. Pesticide treadmill Quota Rice brown planthopper Pesticide resistance is the adaptation of pest species targeted by a pesticide resulting in decreased susceptibility to that chemical. In other words, pests develop a resistance to a chemical through selection; after they are exposed to a pesticide for a prolonged period it no longer kills them as effectively. The most resistant organisms are the ones to survive and pass on their genetic traits to their offspring. For example the rice brown plant hopper in South East Asia experienced an exponential growth due to elimination of its natural predators by broad spectrum pesticides – see below. An import quota is a type of protectionist trade restriction that sets a physical limit on the quantity of a good that can be imported into a country in a given period of time. Quotas, like other trade restrictions, are used to benefit the producers of a good in a domestic economy at the expense of all consumers of the good in that economy. Quota can also refer to the production quotas or limits placed on farmers in the EU in order to reduce food surpluses e.g. milk quotas. They are also used in the Common Fisheries Policy to restrict catch sizes in the North Sea to a sustainable level. The brown planthopper is a small planthopper that feeds on rice plants. There were numerous brown planthopper outbreaks in Southeast Asia in the 1980s and new ones are expected. It is believed that excessive use of insecticides lead to outbreaks reducing populations of natural enemies which then allowed the planthopper which layed its eggs inside the stems of the rice plant to reproduce exponentially. Predators of this insect include the spiders, ladybirds, beetles etc Asian Governments then restricted the use of certain pesticides and encouraged IPM using natural biological controls and reduced pesticide levels. Set-a-side Simon – Julian Soil Structure Soil texture Set-aside as a political measure was introduced by the European Union (EU) in 1988 to (i) help reduce the large and costly surpluses produced in Europe under the guaranteed price system of the Common Agricultural Policy; and (ii) to deliver some environmental benefits following considerable damage to agricultural ecosystems and wildlife as a result of the intensification of agriculture. It has since become used as a generic term for the practice of leaving a proportion of farm land uncultivated or put to nonagricultural use for a period of time. Under the new Environmental Stewardship Scheme operated by DEFRA farmers are expected to deliver some positive environmental benefit from land that is not being cultivated in order to qualify for payment. Julian Simon is a resource optimist with a Boserupian view on the relationship between population and resources. Simon’s central premise was that people are the ultimate resource. "Human beings," he wrote, "are not just more mouths to feed, but are productive and inventive minds that help find creative solutions to man’s problems, thus leaving us better off over the long run. He challenged the views of his academic rival Paul Ehrlich and claimed that human ingenuity would allow improvements in agricultural technology to go on feeding ever more people at ever higher standards. The Green Revolution in Asia supports his claim but critics like Paul Ehrlich said he failed to take into account the environmental impacts of intensification. Soil structure is determined by how individual soil granules clump or bind together and aggregate, and therefore, the arrangement of soil pores between them. Soil structure has a major influence on water and air movement, biological activity, root growth and seedling emergence. Farmers prefer a granular structure but heavy use of machinery causes compaction and can create a platy structure which impedes drainage and causes water logging. Soil texture is a soil property used to describe the relative proportion of different grain sizes of mineral particles in a soil. Particles are grouped according to their size into what are called soil separates. These separates are typically named clay, silt, and sand. Soil texture triangles can be used to show soil texture types – see below.Texture describes the mixture of different particle sizes in soils and names such as sandy loam and clay are used to describe these mixtures. Soils may also be referred to as heavy (clays) and light (coarse textured) to indicate their ease of cultivation. Texture is a fundamental soil property influencing key characteristics such as drainage, water storage, workability, susceptibility to soil erosion and suitability for different uses. It also plays a major part in defining 'soil structure'. Soya Subsidies in agriculture Soybeans are an important source of vegetable oil and protein world wide. Soy products are the main ingredients in many meat and dairy substitutes. They are also used to make soy sauce, and the oil is used in many industrial applications. The main producers of soy are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, China and India. The Brazilian state of Matto Grosso is the country’s biggest producer of soya and the Avanca Brazil Programme and infrastructural investments form US giant CARGILL has helped Brazil to become the world’s biggest exporter of soya. Much of it goes into animal feed for intensive livestock farming in EU and China. China is Brazil’s biggest recipient of soya and this trade has been nicknamed the ‘Great Chinese Takeaway’. An agricultural subsidy is a governmental subsidy or payment given to farmers and agribusinesses to supplement their income, manage the supply of agricultural commodities, and influence the cost and supply of such commodities. The EU gives its farmers a range of subsidies under the CAP in order to guarantee food security through self-sufficiency. Target price This is the price set by the EU for agricultural products,such as wheat, that the farmer will hopefully receive. Tariff A tariff is a duty imposed on foreign imported goods. They are usually associated with protectionism e.g. EU protects its own farmers using the price support system it operates under the CAP. Threshold price This is the minimum price set for imported agricultural products such as wheat. It is always set above the target price so as not to undercut EU wheat producers. It is effectively a tariff or levy on imported agricultural produce.