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Lesson 1: TCP/IP Protocols
At a Glance
Protocols are the rules and procedures that govern communications
between devices on a network. Actually, you can find protocols throughout
the computer, data communications, and network field. Protocols are used
in all these areas to define the way in which devices communicate. They
govern how a modem and computer communicate, how a video display
adapter accesses computer memory, how a file is transferred over the
Internet, and how a telephone connects to the telephone network.
With regard to networks, protocols operate at every layer of the OSI model.
There are physical layer protocols, data link layer protocols, network layer
protocols, etc. The protocols that operate at each layer offer essentially the
same services. However, while the protocols at each layer may provide
similar features, how they do their job and what features are implemented
varies.
One of the most important sets of protocols in networking today is TCP/IP.
It is the backbone of the Internet and is everywhere—from the smallest to
the largest network. You will encounter TCP/IP on a Macintosh connected
via a modem to the Internet, on a small LAN connected via a router to the
Internet, on a corporate intranet, and on a wide area network connecting
worldwide sites of a large corporation. Of the protocol sets presented,
TCP/IP is becoming the universal protocol.
What You Will Learn
After completed this lesson, you will be able to:

Define the purpose and function of a protocol.

Explain difference between a routable and a non-routable protocol

Explain the purpose of a protocol stack.

Define relationship of TCP/IP to the OSI model.

List the major features and protocols of the TCP/IP suite.

Explain the different protocols that make up TCP/IP work together.

List the addressing schemes used by TCP/IP.

Describe the addressing schemes used by TCP/IP.

Explain the practice of subnetting.
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Introduction to TCP/IP
Unit 4
Student Notes:
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Lesson 1: TCP/IP Protocols
Tech Talk

Address Mask - A 32 bit binary quantity that separates the network
portion of an address from the host portion.

ARP - Address Resolution Protocol. The interface between IP (layer 3),
and a multi-access layer 2 protocol supporting it, through which
physical address are mapped to logical addresses.

ARPANET - The pioneer long haul (WAN) network funded in the mid1960's by the United States Department of Defense's Advanced
Research Projects Agency (ARPA). It is possible to trace today's
Internet directly to the original ARPANET

Best Effort Delivery - The characteristic of a network that does not
guarantee packet delivery. IP is a best effort protocol. Compare with
X.25 that guarantees error-free delivery.

BSD UNIX - Berkeley Standard Delivery UNIX. An operating system
common in educational and research institutions of the 1970's. ARPA
funded the addition of TCP/IP to the BSD operating system assuring it
as a standard for inter-computer communication.

Distance-Vector - A family of routing protocols, including RIP, in which
routers maintain a database of next hops for any route that is not
directly connected.

DNS - Domain Name System. The on-line, distributed database system
used to map human readable "domain names", (e.g. www.nortel.com)
into their corresponding IP addresses.

Domain - A part of the DNS naming hierarchy. Syntactically, a domain
name consists of a sequence of names (labels) separated by periods
(dots).

Dotted Decimal Notation - The syntactic representation for a 32-bit
integer that consists of four 8-bit numbers (octets) with periods (dots)
separating them. Many TCP/IP application programs accept dotted
decimal notation in place of destination machine names.

FTP - File Transfer Protocol. The TCP/IP application layer protocol for
transferring files from one machine to another. It is normally
implemented as an application program and uses the TELNET and
TCP protocols. The server side requires a client to supply a log-in
identifier and password before it honors requests.

ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol .Part of the TCP/IP suite
used for communicating information about the network.
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
IP - Internet Protocol. The TCP/IP standard layer 3 protocol that
defines the IP datagram as the unit of information passed across an
internet. IP provides the basis for connectionless, best-effort packet
delivery service,

IP Address - The 32-bit address assigned to hosts participating in a
TCP/IP Internet. IP addresses are the abstraction of physical hardware
addresses (MAC address) like an internet is an abstraction of physical
networks. An IP address is divided into a network portion (NetID) and
a host portion (HostID).

IP Datagram - The basic unit of information passed across a TCP/IP
Internet.

Link-State - A family of routing protocol, including OSPF, in which
each router maintains a map of the entire local network.

Multihomed Host - A host with interfaces that connect it to more than
one physical network.

Port - A mechanism, provided by IP, for addressing separate process on
a single host machine.

RFC - Request for Comment. The series of edited, but not referred
notes in which most of the TCP/IP standards are documented.

RIP - Routing Information Protocol. A simple, limited distance-vector
routing protocol.

SMTP - Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. The TCP/IP standard protocol
for transferring electronic mail messages. SMTP defines how mail
systems interact as well as specifying formats and control messages.

SNMP - Simple Network Management Protocol. A TCP/IP standard
protocol used for monitoring devices on an internet.

Subnet Address - An extension of the IP addressing scheme allowing a
site to use a single IP network address for multiple physical networks.

Subnet Mask - A bit mask used to select bits from an IP address for
subnet addressing. The mask is 32 bits long and selects the network ID
portion of the IP address and one or more bits of the local portion.

TCP - Transmission Control Protocol. The TCP/IP transport level
protocol that provides reliable, end-to-end delivery of data. TCP allows
a process on one machine to send data to a process on another machine.

TCP/IP - The entire protocol suite is often referred to as TCP/IP
because TCP and IP are the two fundamental protocols.
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Lesson 1: TCP/IP Protocols

Telnet - The TCP/IP standard protocol for remote terminal connection
service. Telnet allows a user at one site to interact with a remote
system as if the user's system were directly connected to the remote
system.

UDP - User Datagram Protocol. The TCP/IP protocol that allows a
process on one machine to send a datagram to a process on another
machine. UDP uses IP to deliver datagrams. UDP datagrams include a
port number allowing the sender to distinguish among multiple
destinations.

Well-Known Port -A group of ports reserved, by convention, for specific
services.
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History of TCP/IP
In the late 1960's, the United States Department of Defense Advance
Research Projects Agency funded research for a prototype network, the
ARPANET. The goal was to build a communications system that could
withstand a catastrophic nuclear disaster. Another goal was to encourage
communications among major research institutions. This facilitated
communications among major research institutions and the military. This
project ultimately became the Internet.
As ARPANET developed into the Internet, many other computer networks
began to connect to it. These networks were very different from one
another, using different equipment and different operating software. This
created a need for a “common language” allowing diverse computer
networks to communicate. In 1974 a UCLA graduate student, Vinton Cerf,
and an MIT professor, Robert Kahn, developed the first version of the
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) protocols. Over
the next 8 years TCP/IP became the standard suite of protocols for intercomputer communications. Although other protocols had strong support at
that time, TCP/IP was freely available and was popular at universities.
Today, these protocols are among the most popular in use.
Routable vs. Nonroutable Protocols
In the early days of local area networks, networks were an isolated entity.
As such, protocol developers did not need to concerns themselves with
moving data from network to network. Therefore, early protocols were nonroutable. That is they did not understand how to move data from one LAN
to another.
With the advent of internetworks came the need for protocols that could
decide whether data was for a local network or for another network on the
internet. There also needed to be protocols to move the data once it was
determined where it should go. Protocols that can perform these tasks are
called routable protocols. Non-routable protocols can function only within a
LAN.
Protocol Suite
Protocols often work together as a group, such as TCP/IP, AppleTalk, or
NetWare. These groups of protocols are known as protocol suites. They are
also sometimes referred to as protocol stacks.
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Lesson 1: TCP/IP Protocols
Check Your Understanding
1. One protocol exists for each layer of the OSI model.
a. True
b. False
2. Which of the following are protocol stacks. (select 2)
a. TCP/IP
b. 802.3
c. 100BASET
d. FTP
e. AppleTalk
3. A protocol stack is ___________.
a. NetWare
b. Layer 2, 3, and 4 of the OSI model
c. A set of integrated protocols that offer a unified set of features
d. None of the above
4. A routable protocol supports more than one internetworked LAN.
a. True
b. False
TCP/IP vs. OSI Model
In lesson 2-1 you learned about the seven-layer OSI model and how it
compartmentalizes the process of sending information through a network.
TCP/IP at the lower 4 layers follows this model, but at the upper 3 layers
combines session, presentation, and application tasks in a single layer.
While the tasks performed by TCP/IP are those identified by the OSI
model, they divide up them up somewhat differently.
The reason this TCP/IP divides these tasks somewhat differently lies in the
development of TCP/IP and OSI. TCP/IP was developed in the late 1970's
to address the problem of lack of standards between different systems
connected to the ARPANET. The OSI model was developed several years
later to address similar issues with increasingly popular local area
networks. While the layers and functions of those layers are similar
between the OSI model and TCP/IP, there are differences.

TCP/IP is a 5-layer protocol

TCP/IP application layer = OSI application, presentation and session
layers
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Data link and physical layers are unspecified; supports most LAN
technologies
The figure shows the relationship between the OSI model and TCP/IP.
TCP/IP vs. OSI Model
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Presentation
Session
Transport
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Physical
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Overview of TCP/IP Protocols
We'll now look at the major protocols that comprise the TCP/IP protocol
stack. An overview of application, transport, and network layer protocols is
provided here. More detailed descriptions are provided later for the
transport and network layer protocols.
Physical and Data Link Layers
TCP/IP operates independently of the physical and data link layer
protocols. It supports all standard LAN and WAN networks. TCP/IP,
therefore, does not specify protocols for these layers. The data link layer
uses a frame as its data unit.
Layers 1 – 4
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Presentation
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Network Layer – IP
At the network layer, TCP/IP provides the Internet Protocol (the IP in
TCP/IP). IP provides the requisite network layer functions to deliver data
across networks. This protocol is the backbone of the Internet and moves
data from network to network via a worldwide system of routers. The
network layer uses a packet as its data unit.
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Transport Layer – TCP and UDP
The Transmission Control Protocol (the TCP in TCP/IP) provides end-toend delivery of data as required of a transport layer protocol. This end-toend delivery does not stop at the device. Since most systems today are
capable of running multiple applications simultaneously, the data must be
delivered to the appropriate application. Any application running on a
device is called a process. TCP and UDP provide facilities for process-toprocess delivery of data. The TCP/IP transport layer uses a user
datagrams as its data unit.
Application Layer – HTTP, SMTP, FTP, SNMP, Telnet
The TCP/IP application layer is equivalent to the session, presentation,
and application layers of the OSI model. In other words, the TCP/IP
application layer handles the functions that are specified to occur in these
OSI layers. These are the protocols with which you are probably most
familiar because they relate directly to the most common processes: e-mail,
web browsing, downloading files, etc.
Application Layer
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HTTP
HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol) is the language that processes the
pages you access on the World Wide Web. HTTP handles formatting of
pages and HyperText links that allow you to navigate from page to page.
SMTP
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is the protocol that provides
electronic mail services. Whenever you send an email message over the
Internet, it is SMTP that handles the transfer of the mail.
FTP
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used to transfer files between devices
over a TCP/IP network. FTP uses the transport services of TCP to provide
a reliable, connection-oriented service. It is commonly used when
downloading files from the Internet.
SNMP
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is a TCP/IP protocol that
supports management of network devices. Management allows a network
administrator to configure devices, monitor network performance, detect
and locate problems, map the topology, and control network security.
Telnet
The Telnet protocol supports remote log-in to a host from another host on
the network. Two hosts connected via Telnet form a client/server
relationship. The device making the request is seen as the client and the
one serving the request is seen as the server. Telnet is used in a variety of
ways including connecting to a device to configure the device, to control a
remote computer, or manage a remote web server.
DNS
Domain Name Service (DNS) is a centralized directory service that equates
a unique name with a hosts IP address. You use DNS names everyday
when you send email ([email protected]) or access a web site
(www.anycollege.edu). It is a hierarchy of DNS servers that maintain the
lists of host names and IP addresses.
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Internet Protocol (IP)
The heart of TCP/IP lies in its internetwork protocol, IP. This protocol
provides network layer functionality to move data from network to network
across an internetwork. IP moves data over any data link and physical
layer protocols This allows an internetwork to be of any combination of
transmission medium, media access method, physical addressing or
topology. In real terms, this means this internetwork shown on the
opposite page is made possible by IP.
IP Features
Two features often found as part of a network layer protocol are missing
from IP. While a network layer protocol is usually guarantees reliable
delivery of data, IP makes no such promise. IP provides no error checking
and no means by which to report to the sender the outcome of a packet
reception. Therefore, IP is known as an unreliable protocol. Not to worry,
while IP does not provide error checking or reporting, its higher-layer
partner, TCP does.
Another issue with IP is that it is a connectionless protocol. IP moves data
from end-to-end without establishing a virtual circuit. This means that
each packet moves from end-to-end independently, even if there are many
packets of data that are part of the same message (a single file for
example). Data packets that are sent along different routes to reach their
destination may arrive out of sequence. Again, TCP is responsible; in this
case for reassembling a message from its individual packets.
Transport Layer Services
Transport layer protocols are responsible for reliable, error-free, end-to-end
delivery of data. The transport layer is also responsible for message
segmentation and reassembly. UDP and its counterpart, TCP, both handle
these functions within TCP/IP.
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Lesson 1: TCP/IP Protocols
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless protocol that
operates at the transport layer. Another protocol, TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol), also operates at the transport layer and provides
connection-oriented services. We will first discuss UDP since it is the
simpler of the two protocols and much of what is true of UDP is true for
TCP.
Two of the primary responsibilities of a transport layer protocol are end-toend delivery of data and making sure that data is delivered error-free (no
loss, duplication, or corruption). UDP handles the first responsibility, but it
offers only limited facilities for ensuring error-free delivery.
Before we describe how UDP handles end-to-end delivery, we need to look
at what that means in a TCP/IP-based network. Since computers are
capable of running multiple programs at one time (such as Microsoft Word,
Adobe PhotoShop, Eudora Pro, and Corel Draw), delivery of data from the
source device to the receiving device is not enough. The data must be
delivered not only to the receiving device, but to the correct application as
well. UDP, and TCP as well, do this by sending and receiving data not only
from source to destination device but source to destination application as
well. We will discuss how this is done in a moment.
As far as error-free delivery is concerned, UDP was designed as a fast, low
overhead protocol. As such, UDP provides no facility for ensuring data
arrives without loss or duplication. It only provides limited error checking.
Upper layer protocols that require these additional facilities utilize the
more robust TCP protocol.
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Ports
Data must be delivered not only to the correct destination device but also
to the correct destination application. UDP and TCP perform this task by
utilizing another level of addressing called a port. Just as a personal
computer has a variety of interface ports (such as serial, parallel, SCSI,
and USB), TCP/IP uses a port to identify different application programs.
Each application that runs has a unique port number. Port numbers have
been defined for many common applications and these port numbers range
from 0 to 65535.
UDP Port
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FTP
Telnet
SMPT
FTP
Telnet
SMPT
Port 1
Port 2
Port 3
Port 1
Port 2
Port 3
UDP
UDP
IP
IP
Data Link
Data Link
Physical
Physical
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Lesson 1: TCP/IP Protocols
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is the more capable version of the
transport layer protocol UDP. TCP provides end-to-end delivery, reliable
delivery, port addressing, and flow control.
Just like UDP and a basic requirement of any transport layer protocol,
TCP is responsible for end-to-end delivery of data. In addition, like UDP,
end-to-end delivery means delivering data to the appropriate application.
TCP port addressing is identical to UDP port addressing. TCP/IP provides
several checks to ensure error-free and complete delivery.
Unlike UDP, TCP provides error checking and reporting. As each packet of
data arrives, TCP performs a checksum, and reports the success or failure
back to the sender. If the packet arrives damaged, the failure is reported
and the sender can resend the packet.
A feature of transport layer protocols is segmentation—the division of a
single message into multiple pieces. Sequence control ensures that all
packets of the original message are received in the proper order. To do this,
TCP includes a sequence number in the header of each packet that is used
by the receiver to put the packets in the correct order.
Hand-in-hand with sequence control is loss and duplication control. TCP
ensures that not only are all packets received error-free and can be put
back into their proper order, but that no packets have been lost in
transmission. TCP also makes sure that no packets are duplicated.
To ensure that the receiving device is not overwhelmed with a flood of
data, TCP provides flow control. If data is coming in to fast, TCP informs
the receiver to reduce the data rate until it can catch up.
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Check Your Understanding
1. TCP/IP was developed to address what problem?
a. Network congestion
b. Connecting different systems with different language and encoding
systems
c. Different transmission speeds
d. Geographical distances
2. TCP/IP is a ___ layer model.
a. 7
b. 6
c. 5
d. 4
3. Internet Protocol (IP) is a _________ layer protocol.
a. Network
b. Transport
c. Session
d. Data link
4. UDP provides reliable, error-free transmission.
a. True
b. False
5. TCP/IP does not specify protocols for the data link layer.
a. True
b. False
6. DNS is a network layer protocol
a. True
b. False
7. Which TCP/IP layer uses Port addressing.
a. Application
b. Session
c. Transport
d. Data link
8. IP is called a(n) ______________ protocol.
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Lesson 1: TCP/IP Protocols
a. Unicast
b. Unreliable
c. Reentrant
d. Universal
9. Which TCP/IP layer uses logical addressing?
a. Physical
b. Application
c. Network
d. Transport
10. TCP/IP uses a _____ bit address for the network and host address.
a. 64
b. 128
c. 32
d. 48
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IP Addressing
TCP/IP uses three different types of addressing to move data throughout
an internetwork: physical, logical, and port address. We have previously
discussed the concept of physical and logical addresses. TCP/IP utilizes
Data Link layer physical addresses to move data within a single LAN. To
move data from LAN to LAN across the internetwork, it uses logical
addresses. Finally, to move data from end-to-end (process-to-process), a
port address is used.
Physical Address (Data Link Layer)
The physical address is the MAC address specified in the Data Link layer
frame. This address is used to move data to the correct device within a
single LAN. The format of the address is specific to the particular Data
Link layer protocol in use on a particular LAN, such as Ethernet or Token
Ring.
Logical Address (Network Layer)
TCP/IP provides logical addressing as required by the Network layer to
support moving data from network to network independent of the Data
Link layer protocol and the physical LAN. Remember that a logical address
uniquely identifies a device on an internetwork while a physical address
uniquely identifies a device on a particular LAN.
Dotted Decimal Notation
To make it easier for people to read and understand Internet addresses,
they are often written as four decimal numbers (32 bits), each separated by
a dot. This format is call dotted decimal notation.
The notation divides the 32-bit address into four 8-bit (byte) fields called
octets and specifies the value of each field independently as a decimal
number.
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The address consists of a NetID, and HostID.
Network Address
Host Address
Network ID
This portion of the IP address uniquely identifies the network to which this
address belongs. Information is routed to a destination network based
upon this portion of the IP address.
Host ID
This portion of the IP address uniquely identifies an individual device on a
destination network. It is used when the packet reaches the destination
network specified by the network ID.
Class A, B, and C Addresses
There are three primary classes of IP addresses. Each class allocates a
different number of bits to the NetID and HostID.

Class A addresses allow up 126 networks and up to 16,777,214
hosts/network
Host
Address
Octet 1
Octet 2
Octet 3
Octet 4
Network
Address
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Class B addresses allow up to 16,384 networks and 65,534
hosts/network
Host
Address
Octet 1
Octet 2
Octet 3
Octet 4
Network
Address

Class C addresses allow up to 2,097,152 networks and 254
hosts/network
Host
Address
Octet 1
Octet 2
Octet 3
Octet 4
Network
Address
Two additional classes, Class D and E, are reserved for special uses.
The valid network numbers for each Class are given below. The "hhh"
represents the host portion of the address that is assigned by the network
administrator.
Class A: 001.hhh.hhh.hhh through 126.hhh.hhh.hhh
Class B: 128.001.hhh.hhh through 191.254.hhh.hhh
Class C: 192.000.001.hhh through 223.255.254.hhh
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Lesson 1: TCP/IP Protocols
Addressing Rules
The bits used to define the host portion (HostID) of an Internet address
should not be all one bits. According to the standard, any Internet address
with the host portion consisting of all ones is interpreted as meaning "all",
as in "all hosts." For example, the address 128.1.255.255 is interpreted as
meaning all hosts on network 128.1.
The bits used to define the network portion (NetID) of an Internet address
should not be all zero bits. According to the standard, a host portion
address of all zeros is interpreted as meaning "this," as in "this network."
For example, the address 0.0.0.63 is interpreted as meaning host 63 on this
network.
The class A network number 127 is assigned the "loopback" function. This
means that a datagram sent by a higher level protocol to a network 127
address should loop back inside the host.
Subnet Masks and Subnetting
Subnets are logical subdivisions of a single Internet network. For technical
or administrative reasons, it is desirable in many organizations to divide
the network into several different networks. Routers then connect these
independent networks. However, each organization that wishes to connect
to the Internet can usually obtain only a single Internet number.
If multiple TCP/IP networks are interconnected across routers, you must
assign a different network number to each network. However, if the
network is part of the Internet, you cannot arbitrarily select any network
number, since network numbers must be assigned by the NIC. Subnet
addressing allows an organization to use a single Internet network number
for multiple physical networks. Subnets may be used with any class of
Internet addressing except Class D (multicast).
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A subnet mask allows the host portion of an Internet address to be divided
into two parts. One part is used to identify the subnet number, and the
other part is used to identify a host on that subnet.
A host or router uses the leading bits of an IP address to determine its
class. Once the class of an address is determined, the host can easily
distinguish between the bits used to identify the network number part of
the address, and the bits used to identify the host part of the address. How
can a network element determine which bits from the local host portion of
the address are used to define the subnet number? The answer is that a 32bit subnet mask is configured to allow the host to make this distinction.
The bits in the subnet mask and the Internet address have a one-to-one
correspondence. The bits of the subnet mask are set to 1 if the device
examining the address should treat the corresponding bit in the Internet
address as part of the original network number or part of the subnet
number. The bits in the mask are set to 0 if the device should treat the bit
as part of the subnet host number. In other words, after the class of an IP
address is determined, any bit from the original host number that has a
corresponding bit set in the subnet mask is used to identify the subnet
number. It is recommended that the subnet bits be contiguous and located
as the most significant bits of the local host address.
Supplement #1
Research and answer the following questions for each of the concepts/applications listed.
Questions:
What does it stand for?
What is its function?
Who created it and how long ago?
What OSI layer is it in and why?
Could the Internet run without it?
What web site did you find most of your info? (The U4L1 reading doesn’t count.)
Concepts/Applications:
1. HTTP
2. SMTP
3. FTP
4. SNMP
5. DNS
6. TCP
7. UDP
8. IP
9. TELNET
Explain the dotted decimal system.
What is the difference between a class C and a class B?
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Lesson 1: TCP/IP Protocols
Supplement #2
Acronym
IP NUMBERING
WHO LET THE NUMBERS OUT?
Full Organization Name
Purpose / Mission
IANA
IETF
IRTF
ISOC
What are the characteristics of Ipv6?
Why is that better than Ipv4?
Supplement #3
Answer the following questions from your memory using technical
terminology learned in this lesson. Proofread carefully so I’ll be able to
read your responses. Anything not written FROM YOUR MEMORY will
be rejected (no looking at the lesson or using cut/paste)
1. What is the purpose and function of a protocol?
2. What is the difference between a routable and a non-routable protocol?
3. What is the purpose of a protocol stack?
4. How does the TCP/IP protocol stack relate to the seven-layer OSI model?
5. What are the major features and protocols of TCP/IP?
6. How do TCP/IP protocols work together?
7. What addressing schemes are used by TCP/IP?
8. Describe the three primary classes of IP addresses.
9. Explain why subnetting is necessary.
DRAFT
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