Download CHAPTER2 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1. Second

CHAPTER2
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1. Second Language Acquisition Hypotheses
Krashen and Terrell (2000) have mentioned some hypotheses regarding to the
second language acquisition (p. 26). These hypotheses will be a useful input for the
writer's analysis in order to give deeper explanation about second language acquisition.
1. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
This hypothesis claims that there are two different ways for adults in developing their
second language skill. The first one is through language acquisition, which means using
language for real communication. It is a subconscious process that people often do not
realize they are acquiring language. It is a natural way to develop the language ability.
The second is by language learning which refers to the awareness of knowledge of the
rules and being able to talk about them. Contrary to the language acquisition, it is a
conscious process in knowing the language.
Table 2.1. The Acquisition-Learning Distinction (Krashen and Terrell, 1990, p. 27)
Acquisition
Similar to child first language acquisition
''picking up" a language
subconscious
implicit knowledge
formal teaching does not help
Learning
formal knowledge oflanguage
"knowing about''a language
conscious
explicit knowledge
formal teaching helps
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2. The Input Hypothesis
This hypothesis states that by understanding the input of target language including the
structures will help acquires to advance the acquisition in the target language. The
caretakers (mothers, fathers, and others) can be important factors in forming someone's
second language acquisition.
There are three caretaker speeches for second language acquirers:
-Foreigner Talk
Foreigner talk is the modifications made by native speakers when they are talking to
non-native speakers. Researchers have reported that those who are used to talking to
foreigner will make them understand the second language easier. The modifications
include slowing down, repeating, restating, and changing wh- questions to yes or no
questions.
- Teacher Talk
Teacher talk is foreigner talk in the second language classroom. In the classroom, when
the teachers talk to the students and they understand what they say; it is not only about
giving a language lesson but it may also be an input for acquisition.
- Interlanguage Talk
Interlanguage talk might be very useful for second language acquisition because it
focuses more on real communication and contains enough input for the acquirers to
develop their second language competence.
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2.2. Some Factors in Second Language
According to Krashen and Terrell (2000, p.39-43) there are some factors which
influence second language acquisition. They are:
1. Second Language Aptitude
Aptitude is related to the development of ability in second language by learning. It
focuses more on tests which need grammatical analysis rather than communicative
ability.
2. The Role ofthe First Language
Interference refers to the role of the first language in the second language performance.
It indicates that the first language influence people when they try to speak a second
language. Acquirers tend to substitute some first language rule to the second language
rule. Unfortunately, Ll and L2 rules are different in certain ways, so if it happens it will
result in errors.
For example: Rumah besar (Indonesian Language = first language)
*House big (English Language =second language)
It is one example of interference in which the translation of English language is not
appropriate if it follows the Indonesian rules.
Besides, Mitchell and Myles (1998) said that from the observation, second language
performance is influenced by the language people already know. It cannot be denied that
first language gives strong pattern to people so that they cannot eliminate what they are
already familiar with.
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3. Routines and Patterns
Routines and patterns are sentences that are memorized wholes and partially memorized
wholes. Example of routine: "What's your name?", "How are you?". Patterns are
partially memorized sentences with an empty "slot" for a noun or noun phrase. For
example: "Where is the .......?",the blank can be filled with hospital, opera, station, etc.
Routines and patterns give indirect benefit to the language acquisition because the
acquirers can get more input and manage conversations.
2.3. The Development ofL2 Grammar Knowledge
Learning L2 means learn the grammar of the target language (TL). O'Grady et
al. (1987) stated that grammar consists of some elements, such as phonetics, phonology,
morphology, syntax, and semantics, in which the speaker is able to construct and infer
the words and sentences of one's language.
Herusatoto (2005) claimed that the competence achieved by L2 and the native ofLl
speakers of the same language is different to each other. Because of that, L2 learners
need to construct the grammar of the target language based on the target language's
rules (cited in Celts, 2005, p. 54).
Herusatoto (2005) stated that learning L2 grammar relates to other components of
linguistic development (cited in Celts, 2005, p. 55). Celce-Murcia et al., (1995)
supported the statements by reporting the following:
An L2 leaner having the L2 grammatical knowledge signifies that he/she has the
knowledge of "sentence patterns and types, the constituent structure, the
morphological inflections, and the lexical resources, as well as the phonological
and orthographic systems needed to realize communication as speech or
writing." (cited in Celts, 2005, p. 55)
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2.3.1. The Role of Environment in Developing L2 Grammatical Knowledge
The input of L2 learners is not the same as Ll learners. Ll learners only need
positive evidence, which are models of what is grammatical and acceptable to develop
their L1 competence, whereas L2 learners require both of positive and negative
evidence. Positive evidence is more formal and less naturalistic and negative evidence is
direct or indirect information about what is ungrammatical (Long, 1996).
Herusatoto (2005) affirmed that result from oral interpersonal interactions or
conversations can help L2 learners to get information about target language linguistic
forms. It gives positive and negative evidence which are needed in developing L2
grammatical knowledge (cited in Celts, 2005, p.56).
Long (1996) acknowledged that the learners are able to understand the form­
function of relationship through the positive evidence, while negative evidence gives an
opportunity for learners to compare their incorrect output with grammatically correct
input.
2.3.2. The Role oflnstruction in Developing L2 Grammatical Knowledge
Conscious knowledge of grammatical features in formal grammar contributes to
L2 acquisition (Fotos & Ellis, 1999). Herusatoto (2005) stated that formal grammar
instruction provides
the learners conscious
knowledge which gives learners the
knowledge of grammatical forms so that they can describe the structures they used to
construct their utterances (cited in Celts, 2005, p. 58).
Formal instruction grammar is helpful for adult L2 learners to achieve a high
competence level in the target language. Ellis (2002, p. 169) proposed:
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Such instruction provides learners with an understanding of a specific
grammatical feature and develops explicit knowledge of the L2 grammar needed
for communication. It does not aim to allow the learners to perform a structure
correctly but it helps learners to acquire the linguistic competence or to know
about the target language structures (cited in Celts, 2005, p. 58).
This kind of instruction commonly uses teacher as a facilitator to make grammar
tasks in order to help the learner understand about the grammar of the target language.
By doing the tasks, interaction occurs and the learners will get feedback from the other
learners or teachers which is useful to advance acquisition.
2.4. Pronoun
According
to
Rumadi,
Rahmanto,
and
Barung
(1990)
pronoun
has
three
characteristics (p. 60). They are:
a. pronoun can be used to refer to a noun.
b. the reference of pronoun can be personal or non-personal.
c. pronoun can be functioned as subject and object.
2.5. Indonesian Pronoun
Keraf (1991) stated that there are six Indonesian pronouns: personal pronoun,
possessive pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, relative pronoun, interrogative pronoun,
and indefinite pronoun (p. 62).
2.5.1. Personal Pronoun
Personal Pronoun is a word which substitutes a person! people in a particular
context to avoid unnecessary repetition.
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Table 2.2. Indonesian Personal Pronoun (Rumadi, Rahmanto, and Barung, 1990, p. 60)
Person
I
Singular
saya, aku, daku,
-ku.kuII
III
engkau, kamu, Anda,
dikau, kau-, -mu
ia, dia, beliau, -nya
Plural
kami (exclusive)
kita (inclusive)
kaliau, anda sekaliau,
kamu (sekalian)
mereka, -nya
There are three classifications of Indonesian personal pronoun (Rumadi & Barung,
1989, p. 46):
1.First Person
There are two kinds of first person pronoun: first person singular pronouu, and first
person plural pronoun.
First person singular pronoun has three forms:
a. saya: is used in formal situations, like speech, salutation, etc
b. aku: is mostly used in informal situations to show friendliness
c. daku: is commonly used in literary works
Two types of first person plural pronoun are "kami" and "kita". Sometimes the meaning
of "kami" is similar to "saya" in formal occasion.
2.Second Person
- Engkau and kamu (singular)
a. used by the elders towards the young people where those people have close
relationship,
b. used by people who have higher social status (teachers to students), and
c. used by people who have close relationship without considering the social status and
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- Anda (singular)
a. used in non-personal relationship which refers to group of people.
b. used when the speaker does not want to show close relationship.
Example: Harap Anda tenang saat guru belum masuk kelas.
- Kalian (plural)
Used to refer to third person contains number of people.
Example: Mengapa kalian berteriak di kelas?
3. Third Person
The singular forms of third person pronoun:
- dia and ia
Example: la. Dia memukul adikku.
1b. Ia memukul adikku.
2a Adikku memukul dia.
"Dia" can be used as subject and object pronoun, but "ia" can only be used as subject
pronoun.
- beliau
Beliau is usually used by the young people or people with lower social status to show
respect to the elders or people with higher social status.
Example: Hari ini Bapak Presiden SBY akan berkunjung ke Papua dan beliau akan
berpidato di sana.
The plural form of third person pronoun:
- mereka. It usually refers to human and not thing or animal.
Example: Ketiga anak itu masuk kelas dan mereka duduk dengan tenang.
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2.5.2. Possessive Pronoun
Possessive pronoun is a word that attributes ownership to someone or something.
The words can have different forms based on the numerous of the following nouns
(singular/plural).
The forms of singular possessive pronoun: "-ku", "-mu". "(-)nya" (can refer to people/
animals/things)
Example: Bolaku sudah hilang.
The forms of plural possessive pronoun:"mereka", "kalian", "kami!kita"
Example: Keluarga kami akan berlibur ke Bali.
2.5.3.Demonstrative Pronoun
Demonstrative pronoun is a word that points at the location of a thing. There are
three forms of demonstrative pronoun:
- to show the location of the speaker's place : ini
-to show the location of the hearer's place: itu
-to show the location of the third person's place: sana
Indonesian language has three forms of demonstrative pronoun (Rumadi & Barung,
1989, p. 48):
a. General demonstrative pronoun (Kata Ganti Penunjuk Umum)
The most common general demonstrative pronouns are "ini" and "itu". "Ini" refers to
something which is near with the speaker, whereas "itu" is used to point at something
which is quite far from the speaker. "Ini" and "itu" have function as subject and object
of the sentence as well.
Example: la. lni rumah saya. (function as subject)
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b. Place demonstrative pronoun (Kata Ganti Penunjuk Tempat)
"Sini", "situ", "sana" are the words which are mostly used in Indonesian language as
place demonstrative pronoun. Those three forms can be followed by preposition, such
as: di-, ke- and dari.
Example: - Paman saya ada di sana.
- Rumah itu tidakjauh dari sini.
c.Ihwal demonstrative pronoun (Kata Ganti Penunjuk lhwal)
There are two classification ofihwal demonstrative pronoun:"begini" and "begitu".
Example: - Cara mengeJjakannya begini.
2.5.4. Relative Pronoun
Relative pronoun is a word that links between the sub clause and the main clause.
The general relative pronoun in Indonesian language is ''yang". It comes from the word
ia as a pointer and ng as a determiner. The development of the word yang from the
beginning is: as pointer, determiner, and connector.
"Tempat" and "disaat" are also types of relative pronoun which are being used to
replace place and time.
Example:
- Gadis yang berbaju merah itu sangat cantik.
- Lemari tempat saya menyimpan buku akan segera diganti.
- Saya akan selalu mengenang hari disaat saya menang Iomba.
2.5.5.Interrogative Pronoun
Interrogative pronoun is a word that asks about things, people, or condition. There
are many kinds of interrogative pronouns based on their function:
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a. apa: to ask things
b. siapa: to ask people
c. mana: to ask choices from some people, or things
d. mengapa, bagaimana, kenapa, etc: to ask condition
There are three kinds of interrogative pronouns (Rumadi & Barung, 1989, p. 49):
a.Apa
Apa has two functions:
- to replace things that are being asked.
Example: Ia. Dia makan pisang goreng.
lb. Diamakan apa?
- to change statement into interrogative sentence. In this case, "apa" is placed in the
beginning of the sentence and for the formal situation; "apa" should be followed by "­
kah".
Example: Ia. Anak itu sudah pergi.
1b. Apakah anak itu sudah pergi?
b. Siapa
Siapa is ouly used to ask human.
Example: Ia. Toni memanggil Ria.
lb. Toni memanggil siapa?
c. Mana
Generally, the word "mana" is used to ask choices of people or things
Example: Pensil kamu yang mana, Dik?
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2.5.6. Indefmite Pronoun
Indefinite pronoun is a word that substitutes or shows indefinite or general things,
such as: masing-masing, sesuatu, salah satu, barang, seseorang, para, dan siapa-siapa.
Example: Para murid diharapkan segera berbaris dengan tertib dan teratur.
Masing-masing peserta diharapkan menunjukkan kartu tanda pengenal
sebelum masuk ke ruangan audisi.
2.6. English Pronoun
Aarts (1982) acknowledged personal pronoun, possessive pronoun, demonstrative
pronoun, relative pronoun, and interrogative pronouns as some of subclasses in English
pronouns.
2.6.1. Personal Pronoun
English personal pronouns are categorized by:
a. person (1st person, z•d, person, and 3'd person)
b. case (subjective and objective, except "you")
c. number (singular and plural)
Pronouns in the subjective case has function as subject in the sentence and in the
objective case, they function as object of the sentence. For the third person singular
personal pronouns there are also categorizations based on gender (masculine, feminine,
and neuter). Masculine refers to male (he, him), feminine refers to female (she, her), and
neuter refers to inanimate nouns (it).
Example: She gave them to me.
(She = 3'd person, subjective pronoun, singular, feminine)
(them= 3nl person, objective pronoun, plural)
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Table 2.3.English Personal Pronoun (Aarts, 1982, p. 49)
Person
1st person
2nd person
Number
Singular
I
me
Case
Subjective
Objective
Subjective
Objective
Subjective
3rdperson
Objective
Plural
we
us
you
masculine: he
feminine: she
neuter: it
masculine:him
feminine: her
neuter: it
they
them
2.6.2. Possessive Pronoun
The division of English possessive pronouns is distinguished by:
a. person (I st person, 2"d, person, and 3'd person)
b. number (the exception for the znd person)
c. gender (in the 3'd person singular ouly)
Besides, there are also two subclasses
of possessive pronouns: dependent or
possessive adjective and independent or possessive pronoun. Possessive adjective needs
noun(s), whereas possessive pronoun does not need noun(s).
Example: - Is this your present? (2"d person, dependent)
- Some friends of ours live in France. (I st person, independent, plural)
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Table 2.4. English Possessive Pronoun (Aarts, 1982, p. 52)
Person
Subclass
1st person
2nd person
Dependent
3rdperson
1st person
2nd person
Independent
3rdperson
Nwnber
Singular
mv
your
masculine: his
feminine: her
neuter: its
mine
vours
masculine: his
feminine: hers
neuter:-
Plural
our
their
ours
theirs
2.6.3. Demonstrative Pronoun
English demonstrative pronouns have four forms which are differentiated by the
nwnber: "this" and ''that" (singular), ''these" and ''those" (plural). "This/these" is used to
point what is near. Meanwhile, ''that/those" is used to refer to what is distant.
Example: This is John's book.
Those photographs are the best.
2.6.4. Relative Pronoun
Relative pronouns including "who", "whose", "whom", "which", and ''that", are
functioning as post-modifiers of the noun phrase. They can be divided based on the
reference, whether it is personal or non personal.
The relative pronouns, who, whose, whom, and that are used when the references
are personal. On the other hand, we can use which, whose, and that for the non-personal
references. Based on their functions: "who" is used for people, "whose" is used to show
possession, "whom" is used for people as objective pronoun, "which" is used for things,
and ''that" is used for both people and things (Azar, 1989).
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Example: The man who caused the accident escaped. (personal ref.)
This is something which requires immediate attention. (non-personal ref.)
Besides, there are also "where" and "when" relative pronoun. "Where" is used to
modify a place, such as city, country, house, etc and "when" is used to modify a noun of
time, such as year, day, time, etc (Azar, 1989).
2.6.5. Interrogative Pronoun
There are five types of interrogative pronouns, they are: "who", "whose", "whom",
"what", and "which". They can be used to ask direct or indirect questions.
The difference among those interrogative pronouns is "who", "whose", and "whom"
have personal reference only, whereas which and what have personal as well as non­
personal reference.
Example:- Who wrote Sons and Lovers? (personal reference)
-What dictionaries of English do you know? (non-personal reference)
2.6.6. Indefmite Pronoun
According to Azar (1989), there are twelve indefinite pronouns (p. 226):
everyone, everybody, everything
someone, somebody, something
anyone, anybody, anything
no one, nobody, nothing
Example: - Somebody left his book on the desk.
-I do not have anything to say.