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Germany
After 1871 strongest military and
economic power in Europe.
Policy of Weltpolitik or “World
Politics
1890-1914- Serious conflicts with
all other major powers of Europe
except Austria-Hungary.
League of Three Emperors 1872.
Dreikaiserbund- formed by
Bismarck under Kaiser William I.
1. maintain existing territorial
arraignments in Europe. 2. resist
spread of socialist revolution. 3.
Consult each other in an
international crisis.
Bismarck’s great challenge was
Russian and Austrian interest in
the Balkans.
Treaty of San Stefano – Turkey
was forced to sign because Russia
defeated them. Created Big
Bulgaria which would be a Russian
puppet. Bismarck volunteered as
an “honest broker” in the crisis
and called the Congress of Berlin.
Germany sides with Britain and
Austria. Austria becomes
Germany’s closest ally. Bismarck
wanted a weak partner and did not
want to antagonize Britain. Russia
was humiliated.
Dual Alliance, Oct. 7, 1879Bismarck made with Austria,
1. Each would support each other
militarily if attacked by Russia or
Russia and another power. . This
committed Germany to support of
Austria in the Balkans. Bismarck
concerned with Russia and French
alliance. Did not want war on two
fronts.
Italy
Unified in 1870. Parliamentary
system was corrupt. Imperialistic
designs on Tripoli and Tunis.
Wanted to expand especially in
Africa. This brought her into
conflict with France because Tunis
was adjacent to Algeria. Italy also
wanted Italia-Irredenta, Trieste,
Trentio, and Tyrol. They had
serious conflict with Austria.
Italy becomes a part of the Triple
alliance of 1882 with Germany and
Austria because of anger over
French annexation of Tunis in
1881.
Triple Alliance 1882.
Bismarck encouraged France to
expand overseas to divert attention
away from Alsace-Lorraine.
Triple Alliance Terms
1. If France attacked Italy
or Germany they would
aid each other.
2. If Austria were attacked
by Russia, Italy would
remain neutral. If Italy
attacked by France
Austria would aid Italy.
3. If two or more parties
attacked one of the
parties, the other
signatories would come
to their aid.
Triple alliance for Italy- Italy’s
position was not secure. Resign
them to loss of Tunis. They wanted
French help in conquering Tripoli.
No longer concerned with France
intervening on behalf of the Pope.
Austria-Hungary
1867 – establish Dual Monarchy.
Empire had many nationalities,
Czechs, Poles, and others all
wanted independence. Empires
objective was to gain control of the
Balkans. Serbia wanted to unite
with Serbs of the Empire and
create large Serbian state. Serbia
was first enemy of Austria. Austria
also hated Russia. Russia which
was 2/3 Slavic always backed
Serbia
League of Three Emperors – 1872
Emperor Francis Joseph
Rivalry with Russia in Balkans
made it hard for Bismarck to hold
together. Treaty of Berlin gave
Austria military control of Bosnia,
Herzegovina but not annexation.
Oct. 7, 1879 – Austria signs Dual
Alliance with Germany. Gave
Austria German support in the
Balkans.
Triple Alliance of 1882
1. If Austria were attacked
by Russia, Italy would
remain neutral. Austria
would aid Italy if
attacked by France.
2. If one of the parties
were attacked by two or
more powers the other
signatories would come
to their aid.
Dual Alliance, Oct. 7, 1879Bismarck made with Austria, 1.
Each would support each other
militarily if attacked by Russia or
Russia and another power. . This
committed Germany to support of
Austria in the Balkans. Bismarck
concerned with Russia and French
alliance. Did not want war on two
fronts.
Russia
Largest most populous country in
Europe. Wanted to expand in all
areas. In 1870 broke Treaty of
Paris and renewed aggression in
Balkans. The Treaty of Paris had
ended Russian expansion in
Balkans because of defeat of
Russia at hands of France and
Britain in the Crimean War.
Clashed with Austria, Hungary
and Britain. Did not retreat from
policy in Balkans. Russia was
landlocked and wanted warm
water port especially the
Dardanelle’s. They were the “Big
brother to the Slavic people” in the
Balkans.
League of Three Emperors 1872
Czar Alexander of Russia. Russia
and Austria both had interest in
the Balkans.
Treaty of San Stefano – Turkey
forced to sign. Created a Big
Bulgaria, which was a Russian
Puppet state. Britain concerned
about Russian influence in the
Balkans. Bismarck acts as “honest
broker”.
Congress of Berlin – called by
Bismarck over Balkan crisis.
Russia had to give up Treaty of
San Stefano and sign Treaty of
Berlin. Split Bulgaria into three
parts.
1. Bulgaria proper was
independent.
2. Eastern Rumelia and
Macedonia went to
Turkey.
3. Bosnia and Herzegovina
under Austrian military
control but not annexed.
Treaty of Berlin diplomatically
humiliated Russia.
France
Dominate power in Europe for
centuries.
1871 Franco-Prussian War.
Defeated by Germany. Lost
Alsace-Lorain to the Germans and
had to pay heavy war indemnities
to Germany. Made Germany and
France bitter enemies. France
determined to have lost provinces
of Alsace Lorain returned.
Tried to reestablish lost prestige.
Turned to overseas expansion
especially in Morocco.
The Three Emperors League
diplomatically isolated France.
Bismarck encouraged France to
expand overseas to avert their
attention from Alsace and Lorain.
1881 France annexes Tunis which
angers Italy who is drawn into
Bismarck’s camp. France had been
a friend to Italian unity. France
enters an agreement with Italy to
protect one another’s overseas
interest especially France in
France in Morocco and Italy in
Tripoli. Also agreed to remain
neutral if either was provoked into
attacking a third power.
France was the irreconcilable
enemy of Germany.
Franco-Russian Alliance of 1893.
They seemed like unlikely allies.
Two factors made the alliance
possible.
1. Both wanted to offset
the military threat of
Germany.
2. France had floated
several large loans to
help Russia
industrialize.
1
Germany
Triple Alliance 1882.
Bismarck encouraged France to
expand overseas to divert attention
away from Alsace-Lorraine.
Triple Alliance Terms
1. If Italy or Germany was
attacked by France they
would aid each other.
2. If Austria was attacked
by Russia, Italy would
remain neutral. If Italy
attacked by France
Austria would aid Italy.
3. If one of the parties was
attacked by two or more
parties, the other
signatories would come
to their aid.
Bismarck kept friendship of
Russia, Austria and Italy. Italy’s
commitment to alliance was
doubtful because Austria was arch
enemy. Austria had kept
Irrendenta..
Reinsurance Treaty of 1887Austro-Russian rivalry over
Bulgaria led to the collapse of the
Three Emperors League. Bismarck
makes secret treaty with Russiathey would remain neutral if either
went to war with a third power
except if Germany attacked France
or if Russia attacked Austria.
Bismarck trying to avoid war on
two fronts.
Bismarck made no formal alliance
with Britain. He declare Britain
was “ an old and traditional ally
and there were no differences with
Britain”
Bismarck forced to resign in 1890.
Kaiser William II was ambitious,
brash and young. William
advocated Drang Nach Osten – the
drive eastward into the Balkans
and Middle East. Influenced by
Pan-German feelings, need to
support Austria policy in the
Balkans. From 1890 to 1907 he
Italy
1900 Secret arraignment between
France and Italy.
France given free hand in Morocco
and Italy in Tripoli. Both agreed to
remain neutral if provoked into
declaring war on a third party.
This made the Three Emperors
League null and void. Italy
remained neutral concerning
Russian interest in Constantinople
and Russia supported Italy in
Tripoli. Italy no longer committed
to Triple alliance. Austria was the
enemy of Italy because they kept
Irrendenta. France was friend of
Italian unity. Italy preferred an
alliance with France rather than
Austria.
Colonial Rivaries
Colonial rivalries was a cause of
W.W. I.
1. Led to strain ed relationships
among the European powers. In
Africa all but Russia and Austria
had colonies. France rivaled with
Italy over Tunis and Germany
over Morocco.
2. Colonial rivalry led indirectly to
forming and strengthening of
alliances.
3. colonial rivalry led to
intensification of arms race. In the
Jameson raid on Dutch Republic
Germany realized need for strong
Navy. From 1898 on Germany
built more battleships.
4. colonial rivalry led to hostility
among the powers. France and
Britain almost went to war over
Sudan.
Austria-Hungary
Colonial Rivaries
Colonial rivalries was a cause of
W.W. I.
1. Led to strain ed relationships
among the European powers. In
Africa all but Russia and Austria
had colonies. France rivaled with
Italy over Tunis and Germany
over Morocco.
2. Colonial rivalry led indirectly to
forming and strengthening of
alliances.
3. colonial rivalry led to
intensification of arms race. In the
Jameson raid on Dutch Republic
Germany realized need for strong
Navy. From 1898 on Germany
built more battleships.
4. colonial rivalry led to hostility
among the powers. France and
Britain almost went to war over
Sudan.
Russia
France
Reinsurance Treaty – 1887between Germany and Russia –
they would both remain neutral if
attacked or involved in a war with
a 3rd part EXCEPT if Germany
attacked France or Russia attacked
Austria.
Terms of Alliance:
1. France was attacked by
Germany or Germany
and her ally, Italy,
Russia would aid France
and if Russia was
attacked by Germany
and her ally, Austria,
France would aid
Russia.
2. one or more members of
Triple Alliance
mobilized they would
help each other
mobilize.
3. This Alliance would be
in effect as long as there
was a Triple Alliance.
Franco-Russian alliances
Germany under William II allows
Reinsurance Treaty to lapse.
Russia becomes suspicious of
Germany. Russia turns to France
who seems like an unlikely ally.
Franco-Russian Alliance of 1893.
They seemed like unlikely allies.
Two factors made the alliance
possible.
1. both wanted to offset the
military threat of
Germany.
2. France had floated
several large loans to
help Russia
industrialize.
Terms of Alliance:
1. If France was attacked
by Germany or
Germany and her ally ,
Italy, Russia would aid
France and if Russia
was attacked by
Germany and her ally,
Austria, France would
aid Russia.
2. if one or more members
of Triple Alliance
mobilized they would
help each other
mobilize.
3. This Alliance would be
in effect as long as there
was a Triple Alliance.
Dual Alliance of France and Russia
ended France’s isolation. Created a
rival threat to Triple Alliance.
Germany now faced danger of two
front war. William II failed to
realize the danger.
Dual Alliance of France and Russia
ended France’s isolation. Created a
rival threat to Triple Alliance.
Germany now faced danger of two
front war. William II failed to
realize the dange.
Entente Cordiale 1904.
Britain needed an ally. Most likely
candidate was France. This made
possible by death of Queen Victoria
and ascension of Edward VII to
British Throne. Edward was fond of
France and exchanged diplomatic
visits. This was a “friendly
agreement, which recognized the
following.
France recognized Egypt and
the Sudan as British sphere of
influence.
Britain recognized Morocco as
French sphere of influence.(it
was mineral rich).
Both would support each other if
spheres of influence were challenged
by third power.
Anglo-Russian Entente- France drew
Russia and Britain together in 1907
Both had been long time rivals in
colonial and trade in Middle and far
east.
2
alienated Britain, France, and
Russia. Created a rival bloc of
anti-German alliances and allowed
the Reinsurance Treaty to lapse.
Russia turns to France as an ally
and forms the Franco-Russian
Alliance. William II fails to realize
the danger of this alliance.
Germany now faces the possibility
of a two war front.
William II is furious about the
Entente Cordial because Germany
was shut out of Morocco and
because British interest were on
the side of their arch enemy,
France.
William II becomes even more
furious at the development of The
Triple Entente. Germany began to
feel the threat of her security as
she is “encircled”.
William pursues a more aggressive
foreign policy plan and military
buildup.
Arms race between all European
powers rises significantly. In
Germany the Navy Law was
passed which doubled the size of
her Navy. By 1911 Germany has 9
Dreadnoughts.
Military begins to have greater
control in civilian government.
Britain sought Alliance with
Germany but failed because:
1. Germany wanted Gr.
Br. To join Triple
Alliance but Britain
refused. Did not want
involvement in
Continental affairs.
2. Germany’s Naval
expansion threat to Gr.
Br.
3. Germany’s colonial
interest clashed with Gr.
Br. In China and
Balkans
Gr. Br. Wanted open door policy
in China but Germany wanted
Russia
France
Anglo Russian Entente 1907
Factor which made entente
possible
1. both feared Germany.
German construction of
Berlin to Baghdad railroad
was threat in Balkans and
Turkey. 2. Britain and
Russia resented aggressive
nature of William II’s
diplomacy as shown in first
Moroccan crisis 1905-06. 3.
Britain considered
Germany more of threat
than Russia. 4. Growth of
Balkan states reduced
threat of Russia in Balkans.
5. Russia was defeated by
Japan in 1905.
British cooperate with French and
agree to command the North Sea
while the French Navy would
command the Mediterranean Sea.
Terms of Alliance
1. Persia divided into three
parts: north to Russia as
her sphere of influence,
south to Britain, and central
remained under Persian
control as buffer zone.
2. Russia renounces
interest in Afghanistan,
which safeguarded India.
3. Both recognized China’s
suzerainty over Tibet. Tibet
was like a neutral state.
Colonial Rivaries
Colonial rivalries was a cause of
W.W. I.
1. Led to strain ed relationships
among the European powers. In
Africa all but Russia and Austria
had colonies. France rivaled with
Italy over Tunis and Germany
over Morocco.
2. Colonial rivalry led indirectly to
forming and strengthening of
alliances.
3. colonial rivalry led to
intensification of arms race. In the
Jameson raid on Dutch Republic
Germany realized need for strong
Navy. From 1898 on Germany
built more battleships.
4. colonial rivalry led to hostility
among the powers. France and
Britain almost went to war over
Sudan.
Colonial Rivaries
Colonial rivalries was a cause of
W.W. I.
1. Led to strain ed relationships
among the European powers. In
Africa all but Russia and Austria
3
spheres of influence. Gr. Br. Tried
to maintain integrity of Turkish
Empire because of naval and
economic interest.
Colonial Rivaries
Colonial rivalries was a cause of
W.W. I.
1. Led to strain ed relationships
among the European powers. In
Africa all but Russia and Austria
had colonies. France rivaled with
Italy over Tunis and Germany
over Morocco.
2. Colonial rivalry led indirectly to
forming and strengthening of
alliances.
3. colonial rivalry led to
intensification of arms race. In the
Jameson raid on Dutch Republic
Germany realized need for strong
Navy. From 1898 on Germany
built more battleships.
4. colonial rivalry led to hostility
among the powers. France and
Britain almost went to war over
Sudan.
Russia
had colonies. France rivaled with
Italy over Tunis and Germany
over Morocco.
2. Colonial rivalry led indirectly to
forming and strengthening of
alliances.
3. colonial rivalry led to
intensification of arms race. In the
Jameson raid on Dutch Republic
Germany realized need for strong
Navy. From 1898 on Germany
built more battleships.
4. colonial rivalry led to hostility
among the powers. France and
Britain almost went to war over
Sudan.
4
Pre-War Crisis
Pre-War Crisis
International Crisis 1905-13.
European Powers.
I. First Moroccan Crisis
A. Franco-German rivalry
Morocco was mineral and
agriculturally wealthy. France
wanted Morocco because of loss of
Alsace-Lorain. France’s entente
with Britain gave her free reign in
Morocco. Germany was angry and
intervened. William II landed at
Tangier and made a speech
greeting the Sultan as an
independent sovereign. The Kaiser
promised German support if
France tried to make Morocco a
colony. William II calls for a
Conference to settle dispute.
B. Algeciras Conference
Germany supported by Austria &
France supported by Britain,
Russia, and USA. In name
Morocco was preserved as an
independent state open to trade.
France was given two privileges.
1. France with Spain were given
control over Moroccan Police.
2. France would control customs
and arms supply of Morocco.
C. Consequences
Germany was dissatisfied with the
terms. France bore ill feeling
because Germany tried to
browbeat France over Morocco.
France began holding secret
meeting with Britain which
solidified there support of each
other.
B. Intervention of Powers
Rivalry between powers especially
Russia, Austria, and Germany.
II. Bosnian Crisis 1908-09
A. National Struggles
Very troubled region. Historically
under influence and control of
Turkish Empire and Austrian
Empire. Many subject races had
gained independence. Greece,
Serbia, Montenegro, Romania, &
Bulgaria. These states still
struggled with influence of the
1. Russia – wanted warm water
ports. Half of Russia’s exports
passed through this area. Russia
was also “Big Brother to the Slavic
People” ( support of Serbia)
2. Austria – interest in Balkans
based on political. Wanted to
suppress the nationalist
movements especially in Serbia
which she wanted to rule.
3. German – economic and cultural
interest in Balkans: cheap raw
materials, populous market and
investment. Built the Baghdad
railroad. Believed they had
“historic mission” to culturally
dominate Middle East and
Balkans.
C.
Events leading to Crisis
1. New King ascended to Serbian
throne. King Peter was
antiAustrian & wanted to unite
with Bosnia which was under
Austrian control.
2. “Young Turk Revolution” –
young officers demanded Sultan
Abdul Hamid II restore a
constitution. Ferdinand of
Bulgaria claims himself King of
Bulgaria’s Crete unites with
Greece. Austria wanted to take
advantage of the chaos.
3. Russia’s defeat in Far East
turned her attention back to
Balkans. Russia agreed not to
oppose Austria’s annexation of
Bosnia Hertz. If Austria did not
oppose Russian warships in the
Dardanelle’s.
Pre-War Crisis
D.
Austria annexation of
Bosnia-Herzegovina
1. Austria annexed BosniaHerzegovina. Russia was
indignant. Did not receive
compensation. Serbia’s dreams of
a Greater Serbia were dashed.
Serbia was ready for war. Russia
could not back Serbia because
France and Britain did not want
involvement. Germany backed
Austria. William II said “a knight
in shining Armour will be found by
her side”.
E. Consequences of Bosnian Crisis
1. Russia was humiliated and
intensified her armament
programs. Sought more support
from France.
2. Annexation of Bosnia-Herz.
Made Serbia irreconcilable enemy
of Austria. Serbia could not
become a united state and have
outlet to the sea. Serbian
nationalist formed Black Hand in
1911 to assassinate Austrian
officials in Bosnia.
3. Because of annexation Austria
had more Serbs than in K. of
Serbia. Slavs were opposed to
annexation. Austria had problems
in ruling the annexed areas.
Germany promise support, if
Russia mobilizes, Germany will
mobilize (Moltke).
III. Second Moroccan Crisis
A. Continued Rivalry Between
France and Germany.
1. French not satisfied with partial
control of Morocco. Wanted
complete control. 1908 French
install pro-French Sultan. May
1911 French forces occupy Fez to
suppress uprising against Sultan.
Pre-War Crisis
2. Germans send gunboat to
Agadir on Atlantic coast. British
protest fearing Germans would
make Algadir a Naval base. British
support French. War seems
imminent. Germans back down.
French gained most of Morocco.
Spain gains portion opposite of
Gibralter. German received strip
of French Congo.
3. Consequences - Agadir crisis
was harmful to European peace.
Germany suffered diplomatic and
would not suffer another one.
British, French and Russia were
alarmed at Germany’s aggression.
After the crisis Entente powers
exchanged military information
and made Naval agreements.
British would guard North Sea and
English Channel, French would
patrol the Mediterranean.
IV. Balkan Wars 1912-13
A. After Young Turk Revolution
Turkish government remained
weak. In 1911 Italy attacked
Tripoli. In 1912 in The Traety of
Lausanne, Italy received Tripoli
from Turkey.
Pre-War Crisis
War against Serbia, Greece,
Rumania, and Turkey. Bulgaria
loses a short war. Territories of
First Balkan War are preserved .
Turkey and Rumania gain
valuable territory.
D. Balkan wars - Consequence
1. Serbia was twice victorious
twice in the Balkan wars. Enlarged
her territory. United fellow
nationals. Came into greater
conflict with Austria. Serbia
prevented from getting coastline.
2. Austria found that Serbs in
Bosnia and Herzegovina grew
more troublesome. Austria
determined to attack Serbia.
3. Kaiser knew Austria was
Germany’s only dependable ally.
Germany committed to stand by
Austria.
4. Russian Czar declares “ for
Serbia we will do anything”.
Russia was humiliated because she
did not obtain Albania for Serbia
B. First Balkan War
Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, and
Montenegro formed Balkan
Leaugue declare war on Turkey.
European powers watched with
anxiety as Turkey lost territory.
Austria wanted to stop Serbia from
becoming too powerful. European
Powers call for the Treaty of
London. Austria insist for a new
country to be formed, Albania,
which would block Serbia from an
outlet to the Adriatic Sea. Serbia
was given part of Macedonia.
C. Second Balkan War
Bulgaria regarded Macedonia as
belonging to her. Bulgaria goes to
5
A. Immediate Causes of World
War I
1. Assassination of Francis
Ferdinand at Sarajevo, June 1914
Ferdinand was heir to the Austrian
throne. Serbian group the Black
Hand assassinated Ferdinand
because he had promised when he
became Emperor he would create a
Triple Monarchy which would
include Serbia. This would have
destroyed the Serbian dream of a
greater Serbia and would have
ended “Pan Slavism “. Some
members of the Serbian Cabinet
knew about the plot but did
nothing.
2. Austrian Intention to Destroy
Serbia. Austrian exploits this
event in order to destroy Serbia.
Considered this act an attack upon
the future of the Monarchy.
Austria knew that war with Serbia
would lead to war with Russia.
Austria needed Support of
Germany.
3. German Support – Kaiser
William II considers Austria
Germany’s only ally. The Kaiser
does not believe the Russian Czar
will come to the aide of Serbia.
William gives Austria a “ Blank
Cheque “.
4. Ultimatum to Serbia – Austria
issue an ultimatum to Serbia
a. Serbia must suppress
all anti-Austrian
activities.
b. Serbia must dismiss all
anti-Austrian officials in
their government.
c.
Austrian police would
take part in
investigation of
assassination
5. Serbia agreed to the first
two but not the third
ultimatum. Serbia suggested
to submit the third issue to
the Hague Tribunal for
arbitration.
Immediate Causes of World War I
William II was satisfied with
Serbia’s reply and hailed it “ a
brilliant diplomatic triumph “.
B. Outbreak of War – July 1914
1. War Declared – July 28 Austri
declares war on Serbia. The
bombing of Belgrade begins
2. Russian Mobilization – Russia
could not bear humiliation from
Germany again. France urged
Russia to mobilize against
Germany because France knew of
the Schlieffen Plan. July 30 the
Czar mobilizes his troops.
3. Germany declares war –
Germany demands Russia cease
mobilization, Russia refuses.
August 1 Germany declares war on
Russia.
Schlieffen Plan – Germany had to
attack France at once. Germany
sends France ultimatum to remain
neutral. French reply they would
side with Russia. Germany
declares war on France on August
3. August 4 according to
Schlieffen Plan Germany crosses
Belgium who puts up a formidable
defense. Germany violates Treaty
of London ( 1839 ), by entering
Belgium to attack France. Britain
felt threatened and endangered.
Paris Peace Conference 1919
Although representatives of thirtytwo states attended the Peace
Conference at Paris in January 1919
to write the peace treaties, three men
stood out above others: Woodrow
Wilson, President of the United
States, Clemenceau, the Prime
Minister of France, and Lloyd
George, Prime Minister of Britain.
These came to be known as the Big
Three, for they eventually made all
the decisions of the Conference.
The decisions of the Big Three were
influenced by five factors:
(1) Secret Treaties: While the war
was being fought, there were a series
of agreements made among the
Allies for dividing up the spoils. In
March 1915, France was promised
Alsace-Lorraine, control of the left
bank of the Rhine and German
colonies in Africa while Britain was
allowed to take over German
colonies in Africa and the Pacific. In
April of the same year, Italy was
tempted to join the war on the side of
the Allies by promises of Austrian
and Turkish territory. In August
1916, Rumania was promised
territories in Transylvania and
Bukovina. The Big Three had to
respect these treaties when they were
making the territorial settlement after
the war.
(2) New States: Before the
Conference opened in January 1919,
the Russian and the AustroHungarian Empires had collapsed.
Within these empires, there arose
many new states—Yugoslavia,
Czechoslovakia, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania and Poland. The Big Three
had to accept the existence of these
new states when they were making
the territorial settlement after the
war.
(3) Communist Russia: Since
November 1917, there was a
communist government in Russia.
The Big Three wanted to strengthen
the neighbouring states of Russia so
that they could form a "cordon
sanitaire" to protect Europe against
the spread of Communism.
(4) After-war bitterness: During the
war, the Allied governments had
done their best to arouse the
patriotism of their own people.
Immediately after the war, the people
of the Allied countries still had a
fierce hatred against the enemy
nations. Because they had suffered so
much during the war, they brought
pressure on their governments to
exact heavy compensation from the
losers.
(5) Conflict between the objectives
of the Big Three. Woodrow Wilson
was an idealist, a theorist and a
pacifist. As a pacifist (the horrors of
the American Civil War had made
him a pacifist), he hoped that there
would be no war for mankind. As a
theorist (he was an ex-professor of
history and political economy), he
liked to apply his academic theory
and knowledge to solve the problem
of war. As an idealist (he was a man
of good intentions), he was able to
produce his blueprint for peace in the
future in his Fourteen Points in
January 1918.
i) Wilson
(ii) Clemenceau
(iii) Lloyd George
Fourteen Points
(1) The first main theme of Wilson's
Fourteen Points was the granting of
national independence to all the
'oppressed peoples!'. In practice this
involved the following points.
(a) Impartial adjustment of colonial
claims: the settlement of colonial
problems with reference to the
interests of colonial peoples (point
five);
(b) Germany's surrender of her past
conquests:
Evacuation by the Germans of all
Russian territory (point six).
Evacuation by the Germans of all
Belgian territory (point seven).
Evacuation by the Germans of
Alsace-Lorraine (the French
territory) (point eight).
(c) The dissolution of the AustroHungarian Empire and Turkish
Empire and the granting of
independence to all the oppressed
nationalities:
Italian frontier to extend northward
to recover some land from AustriaHungary (point nine).
Autonomous development for the
people of Austria-Hungary (point
ten).
6
The Peace Treaties
Rumania, Serbia and Montenegro to
be independent (point eleven).
Peoples under Turkish rule to be
autonomous (point twelve).
An independent Poland (point
thirteen).
In short, Wilson hoped to remove
one of the fundamental causes of the
First World War, namely the attempt
of the big powers to rule over alien
races.
(2) The second main theme was that
there should be 'Open Diplomacy'
(according to point one—all
diplomacy and negotiation between
states should be carried on openly),
'Open Sea' (according to point two—
there should be absolute freedom of
navigation of the seas both in peace
and war, except in territorial waters),
'Open Trade' (according to point
three—trade conditions for nations
should be fair and equal and there
should not be any tariff barriers
between them), and 'Disarmament'
(according to point four—armaments
should be reduced to the lowest point
consistent with domestic safety
only). In other words, Wilson wanted
to remove 3 root causes of the First
World War, namely alliance systems,
economic conflict and armaments
race.
(3) The third theme was that an
international association of nations
should be established (point
fourteen). This association would not
only guarantee the independence of
all nations but would also do its very
best to further their prosperity by
promoting international cooperation
in economic and social spheres. In
other words, Wilson wanted to
replace national rivalries by
international cooperation.
To sum up, Wilson's ideals of a
peaceful world consisted of a
removal of all the basic causes of the
First World War (namely armaments
race, secret diplomacy, economic
rivalry and the struggle of the
oppressed nationalities to get
independence) and the formation of
an international organization to
promote the political, economic and
social progress of the whole world
Clemenceau
Clemenceau, Prime Minister of
France, was a man of completely
different character and aim as
Wilson. Clemenceau was known as
'Tiger'. He was no idealist and
pacifist. He did not pay any high
regard to the wishes of the oppressed
nationalities to gain independence.
His basic aims when he came to the
Conference were to give to France
first of all, her two lost provinces—
Alsace and Lorraine; secondly,
security against any possible German
aggression in the years to come. To
realize his second aim, he wanted to
weaken Germany permanently by
confiscating all her colonies and her
past conquests, by depriving her of
armed forces, by exacting heavy
reparations from her and by creating
a buffer state between Germany and
France. This might be regarded as a
policy of 'realism'. French hatred
ofGermany was excusable. France
had. been defeated by Germany in
1871 and nearly defeated in the First
World War. As France was next to
Germany, she always feared another
German aggression.
Lloyd George
Lloyd Geroge, the Prime Minister of
Britain, stood midway between these
two extreme personalities. He was
being pressured by the anti-German
public opinion in Great Britain that
Germany must pay for the war and
"Hang the Kaiser". In the meantime,
he also understood that if excessively
heavy reparations and exceedingly
harsh political terms were imposed
on Germany, Germany might think
of a war of revenge in the future.
Moreover, a poor and impoverished
Germany would also render herself
to be a poor customer of British
goods. A settlement with moderate,
terms on Germany suited Britain's
long-term interests. As a result, this
tactful politician tried his best to
smooth over the differences between
the extreme viewpoints of Wilson
and Clemenceau.
The outcome of the efforts of Lloyd
George was that the Versallies
settlement, taken as a whole,
appeared to be a compromise
between Wilson's pacifist ideals and
Clemenceau's revengeful attitude.
The Big Three, first of all, drew up
the Covenant of the League of The
Nations. They decided that the
Covenant should be included in each
of the peace treaties. The peace
treaties they drew up were as
follows:
( I ) Germany signed the Treaty of
Versailles in June 1919. (2) Austria
signed the Treaty of St. Germain
(September 1919) (3) Bulgaria
signed the Treaty of Neuilly
(November 1919). (4) Hungary
signed the Treaty of Trianon (June
1920) (5) Turkey signed the Treaty
of Sevres (8/1920) & Lausanne
(7/1923).
Treaty of Versailles (1919)
The Treaty reflected chiefly two
basic ideas: punishment of the
defeated and the maintenance of the
principle of self-determination. These
two basic ideas were also reflected in
the other treaties.
i) Territories:
Germany was to lose all her past
conquests. These were to be returned
to their own national units.
In the south-west, Alsace and
Lorraine were returned to France.
The Saar, the coal-producing area of
Germany, was brought under the
control of the League of Nations for
15 years. After this time, there would
be a plebiscite in the Saar to decide
its future. In the meantime, France
was to operate its coal mines so as to
compensate the damage done to the
French mines during the war.
In the west, Eupen and Malmedy
(after plebiscite) were given to
Belgium. In the north, North
Schleswig (after plebiscite) was
returned to Denmark.
In the east, Poland was recreated as a
state. Poland, in view of the
communist threat from the north, was
to be strengthened by: (a) the cession
of a large part of East Prussia, (b) the
cession of Posen so that she might
have access to the sea (In Posen,
there was a strip of territory which
runs from River Vistula to the sea.
This was termed as the Polish
Corridor. To safeguard Polish control
of the corridor, Danzig was made a
free international city under the
League even though the port was
predominantly German in
population.), (c) the acquisition of
two-fifths of Upper Silesia even
though Germans outnumbered the
Poles by about five to three in the
area. Memel was given first to the
League of Nations, which ultimately
passed the place of Lithuania.
Germany also lost all her colonies in
Africa and the Pacific. Most of them
were transferred to the League of
Nations which allowed the victorious
powers such as Britain, France,
Belgium, South Africa, Australia,
New Zealand, Japan to rule over
them as Mandates.
Germany's territorial losses were
severe (about 13% of her land and 7
million of her former population had
to be given up) although these losses
constituted chiefly her past
conquests. Moreover, she was
forbidden to enter into any union
with Austria.
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(ii) Disarmament:
Germany was almost totally
disarmed. She was allowed an army
of 100,000 men to be recruited by
voluntary enlistment and six small
battleships of less than 10,000 tons.
Submarines and aeroplanes were
strictly forbidden. The Rhineland
would be occupied by the Allied
forces for 15 years, during which it
would remain permanently
demilitarized.
war but also indirect war expenditure
such as allowances paid to families
of soldiers, the cost of maintaining
Allied occupation in the Rhine and
the war loans of the Belgian
government. Part of the reparations
was to be paid in annual installments,
part in ships, coal and other kinds of
Germany clearly paid a heavy price
for her defeat. The war-guilt clause
and the accompanying clause
concerning reparations were clearly
made in a spirit of revenge. The
German resentment of the Treaty
helped the rise of Hitler in the l930's.
(iii) War-guilt and Reparations
According to Article 231 of the
Treaty "the Allied and Associated
Governments affirm, and Germany
accepts, the responsibility of
Germany and her allies for causing
all the losses and damages to which
the Allied and Associated
Governments and their nationals
have been subjected as a
consequence of the war imposed
upon them by the aggression of
Germany and her allies." In other
words, the whole blame of provoking
the First World War was put on
Germany. This is historically
incorrect and so constituted a great
hurt to the German national pride
This 'war-guilt clause' provided the
Allied justification for war trials and
reparations. At Leipzig, 12 Germans
were tried, of whom six were
convicted of war-crimes. (The Kaiser
was not given a trial, because the
Dutch Government refused to pass
him to the Allied powers.) In 1921
the Reparations Commission decided
that Germany had to pay £6,600
million in reparations. This figure
was considered too large, for the
reparations covered not only direct
loss and damage as a result of the
Treaty of St. Germain (September
1919)
Like the treaty-settlement with
Germany, Austria was punished for
provoking World War I and much of
her territory was given up to the
newly-created states which were
formed as a result of the dissolution
of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at
the end of the War.
Her territorial losses included:
Trieste, Istria, and part of Tyrol were
given to Italy, Bohemia including the
Sudetenland, Moravia and part of
Silesia to Czechoslovakia, Bukovina
to Rumania, Bosnia, Herzegovina
and Dalmatia to Yugoslavia, and
Galicia to Poland. In most of the
cases, the subject peoples of the
Hapsburg Empire were now returned
to land of the same nationality. The
principle of self-determination was
asserted once more.
The principle of severe punishment
was at the same time meted out to
Austria. Firstly, in the vast territories
lost by the Austrians, there lived
millions of Austrian Germans. There
were 3 million Germans in the
Sudetenland and 250,000 in Tryol.
Secondly, the much-reduced Austria
was forbidden to unite with
Germany. This was a severe blow to
the survival of Austria because
Austrian goods had always depended
upon the German market. Thirdly,
Austria had to pay reparations and
had to be disarmed to the lowest
limit. All in all, the Austrian portion
of the Dual Monarchy was deprived
of 3/4 of her former area and 3/4 of
her people. She became a landlocked state with little economic
resources. Thus the Austrians had ill
feeling towards the Treaty of St.
German.
Treaty of Trianon (June 1920)
Hungary was similarly treated. Under
the principle of national
independence and freedom, Hungary
lost 3/4 of her territory and 2/3 of her
people. Croatia was given to
Yugoslavia, Transylvania to
Rumania, and Ruthenia and Slovakia
to Czechoslovakia.
Punishment was also a bit too much
for Hungary. Firstly, much of the
land ceded by Hungary contained
many Hungarians. About 3 million
Hungarians (Magyars) lived in the
neighboring states as a result of the
Treaty. In Transylvania and in some
other places, more than half of the
population was Hungarians.
Secondly, a severe blow was dealt to
her economic progress because most
of her industrial areas were lost and
her concessions to Yugoslavia
deprived her of access to the Adriatic
and the Mediterranean Sea. Like
Austria, she became a landlocked
state. Thirdly, she had to pay her
reparations and limit her armed
forces.
Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919)
Bulgaria had to give up western
Macedonia to Yugoslavia, western
Some Thrace to Greece, and Dobruja
to Rumania. These territorial losses
were by no means severe. But the
Bulgarians were not satisfied with
the Treaty. Firstly, the reparations
and loss of western Thrace to Greece
not only deprived Bulgaria of her
only access to the Mediterranean Sea
but placed many Bulgarians under
the rule of the Greeks (because
western Thrace was inhabited by
many Bulgarians). Secondly, like the
other defeated powers, Bulgaria
needed to pay her reparations and
limit her armed forces.
Treaty of Sevres (8/1920) &
Lausanne (7/1923)
The Treaty of Sevres met with
immediate failure because the Big
Three had almost completely
discarded the principle of nationalism
in making this treaty. They
partitioned Turkey as a colony.
Besides granting independence to
Saudi Arabia and Armenia, the
victors almost divided up Turkey
among themselves as spoils. Syria
and Lebannon were mandated to
France, while Palestine, Trans Jordan
and Iraq were mandated to Britain.
Rhodes and the Dodecanese were
given to Italy. Eastern Thrace,
Adrianople and Smyrna were
obtained by Greece. Even the Straits
of Dardanelles and Bosporous were
put under international control.
All that remained of the former
Ottoman Empire consisted of the city
of Constantinople and the northern
and central portions of Asia Minor
Soon after the Sultan had signed the
treaty, a nationalist military leader,
Mustapha Kemal immediately led a
nationalist movement to overthrow
the Sultan's government. In
November 1922 the Sultan was
deposed. Kemal demanded a new
treaty. He also began a war to
reconquer the land occupied by the
powers. The powers were tired of
war, and only Greece was intent on
holding her territorial acquisitions.
Greece fought with the Turks but
after a short while she was defeated.
The resulting new Treaty of
Lausanne was signed on July 24,
1923. Unlike all the abovementioned treaties, it was decided not
by the Big Three. Russia, Italy,
Greece, Rumania, Yugoslavia and,
most important of all, Turkey also
participated in the drafting of the
treaties.
By the new treaty, Turkey gave up
her claims to non-Turkish territories.
They became mandates according to
the Treaty of Sevres. But Turkey
recovered purely Turkish territories
(i.e., eastern Thrace). She retained
Constantinople, Adrianople and the
land Lying between them. Moreover,
she had no need to pay reparations
and limit her armed forces.
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The Treaty of Lausanne turned out to
be the most successful treaty because
it was the only negotiated peace
treaty and Turkey was treated as a
nation but not as a defeated enemy
Germans and Rumania obtained
Transylvania where more than half of
the population was Hungarians. Thus
the defeated powers were suspicious
of the intentions of the victorious
powers and had deep resentment
against the Versailles Settlement.
Criticism of the Versailles
Settlement
The makers of the Versailles
Settlement had contradictory
viewpoints in making the peace
treaties but, in general, they did agree
to reconstruct Europe on the
principles of democracy and
nationalism. Before the war, there
had been 19 monarchies and 3
republics. After the war, 15 out of 27
states were republics with an elected
president. The number of
independent states in Europe also
increased from 20 in 1914 to 27 in
1919. The Serbs, Poles, Croats,
Czechs, Letts and Finns had all
formed their national states.
Some of the criticism, which has
been made against the Versailles
Settlement, deserves mentioning.
First of all, the peace settlement was
made by the Big Three and the
defeated states were never allowed to
discuss the terms. Secondly, the
punishment on Germany was
somewhat excessive, since a
democratic government had come to
power. Thirdly, there was the
existence of many national minorities
in the new states of Europe—about
17 millions. Fourthly, the victorious
powers did not disarm, even though
the defeated powers had been
disarmed to the lowest level. Fifth,
there were many cases in which the
Big Three abandoned the principle of
nationality when they were making
the territorial settlement — for
example, Italy obtained South Tyrol
which contained 250,000 Austrian
General Effects of the First World
War
The First World War had farreaching repercussions on the
political and economic developments
of Europe.
After the First World War, there was
little political stability in Europe. In
eastern Europe, the new states,
Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia,
Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania and
Finland were always threatened by
the rapid increase in national strength
of communist Russia. In central
Europe, the Germans always longed
for a revision of the Treaty of
Versailles. They would give full
support to a government, which
advocated a strong foreign policy. In
southem Europe, the Italians also
harbored ill-feeling towards the
Versailles Settlement because the Big
Three failed to realize the territorial
ambitions of Italy as were promised
in the Treaty of London of 1915.
There were only two states in Europe
which hoped to preserve the
Versailles Settlement. They were
Britain and France. As both Britain
and France were gravely weakened
by the war, it is doubtfu1 that they
would be willing to make a costly
war against any aggressors who were
determined to revise the Versailles
Settlement.
The First World War left crushing
economic burdens on all the
European countries. It has been
estimated that the European victors
owed an aggregate of $10 billion to
the U.S.. The economic burdens of
the European governments were
multiplied when they had to
rehabilitate devastated areas, to pay
pensions to the wounded and to the
relatives of the dead and to pay the
interest due on the public and foreign
debts. To add to the economic
burdens of the European
governments, trade and industry did
not revive after the war. There was
mass unemployment in Italy,
Germany, Britain and France shortly
after the war. The immediate result
was that in Italy the people were so
discontented with their government
that they overthrew it. The long term
result was that in order to solve their
economic problems, most of the
European nations tried to become
economically self-sufficient and to
keep out the products of other
countries by building high tariff
walls. Economic nationalism was a
bad omen for the peace of Europe.
There was one hopeful sign for the
peace in the future—the League of
Nations was born in 1920. The
League had a noble ideal. It
advocated open diplomacy, economic
co-operation and peaceful solution of
international disputes.
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