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TITLE
Maritime archaeology in Indonesia: resources, threats, and current integrated research
NAME
Nia Naelul Hasanah RIDWAN
AFFILIATION
Research Institute for Marine and Coastal Resources and Vulnerability
Research and Development Center for Marine and Coastal Resources
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Republic of Indonesia
EMAIL
[email protected]
POSTAL ADDRESS
Research Institute for Marine and Coastal Resources and Vulnerability
Jl. Raya Padang - Painan Km. 16
Kompleks Pelabuhan Perikanan Samudera Bungus
Padang, West Sumatera, Indonesia 25245
REVIEWER SUGGESTIONS
Ross Anderson [email protected]
Mark Staniforth [email protected]
Noel Tan
[email protected]
ABSTRACT
With a sea area covering two thirds of the country, 95,181 km of coastline, and its location at
a crossroads of international seafaring and trading routes, Indonesia has developed over time
a wealthy maritime and underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in the form of shipwrecks,
aircraft wreckages, and other maritime sites. This paper will present the potential of maritime
archaeology in Indonesia; current issues and legislations in researching, preserving and
managing UCH sites; and present the various threats assessed through a number of studies
conducted by the Ministry of MarineAffairs and Fisheries. It will also looks at approaches in
implementing integrated and comprehensive maritime archeologyresearch involving a wide
range of relevant expertise to meet the challenges of research in identifying and responding to
the threats, both natural and human, faced today byUCH sites. Nowadays, maritime
archaeological research in Indonesia is oriented toward marine heritage tourism. The
denomination of sites as marine conservation areas protected by national legislation is an
integral part of maritime archaeological research and a crucial strategy of the Ministry in the
hope that these sites be used as a tool for poverty alleviation and the improvement of the local
community's livelihood.
Abbreviations
Ministry
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries
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INTRODUCTION
Indonesia comprises the largest archipelago in the world with 95,181 km of coastline and
17.480 islands. Indonesian vast territorial waters have an extension of 5.8 million km2 and
they consist of 3.1 million km2 of archipelagic waters, and 2.7 million km2 of Exclusive
Economic Zone (EEZ). Thus 70 percent of the total area of Indonesia is comprised of water
(Nontji 2002). These facts point to huge potential in coastal and ocean resources.
Underwater cultural heritage (UCH) in Indonesian ocean policy is seen as a resource that
could be utilized for tourism development. UCH is defined as a non-renewable resource that
provides a unique opportunity to investigate and learn from our past. Archaeological sites
(including shipwrecks) are seen as a resource for enjoyment and research which has to be
managed in a responsible and sustainable manner (Manders 2012). The submerged heritage
presents immense potential for education, the gaining of knowledge, and also tourism
development (UNESCO 2014). As such, UCH is therefore included in the section of marine
resources and economic activities. This also acts in partnership with stakeholders in minerals
and energy exploitation, capture fisheries, aquaculture, marine transportation, marine tourism,
and installation of sub sea pipelines and cables (Dahuri 2009; Ministry of Marine Affairs and
Fisheries 2009). Many underwater archaeological sites in Indonesia, from Sumatra to Papua –
particularly shipwrecks and aircraft wreckages from World War II era (WWII) – can be used
as marine resources to improve current understanding of maritime culture and history, and to
improve the welfare of society when protected, preserved, and managed properly. In the era
of regional autonomy in Indonesia, shipwrecks can be an asset if used as maritime heritage
tourism in the region, if for example local communities and local governments also establish
maritime museums associated with the shipwreck (Soesilo and Budiman 2006: 307).
Unfortunately, there is a variety of threats that may destroy underwater sites in Indonesia
such as looting and illegal salvaging by foreign and local salvage companies, by local
communities and fishermen, and also by some irresponsible government officials, as it
occured in the Natuna and Mentawai Islands in 2010, 2011, and 2012 (see hereafter). In
addition, fishing activities, anchoring, and illegal fishing with dynamite also threaten the
sites. Furthermore, natural factors also affect the sustainability of UCH sites in Indonesia.
Therefore maritime strategy development policy and integrated research in Indonesia are
truly a necessity to monitor natural threats and to control and prevent human threats to these
underwater sites.
Since 2000, the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries (henceforth Ministry) has been
active in developing surveys and assessments of several shipwreck and aircraft wreckage
sites in Indonesian waters. In accordance with laws and regulations of Indonesia, the Ministry
also considers the research on underwater sites associated with the condition of the
surrounding physical environment. Specifically, coral reefs and other marine biodiversity
protection and conservation. These initiatives are part of a broader concept of sustainable
national development. Detailed combined research is also useful, for example for recording
the level of shipwreck erosion to monitor may indicate evidence of the effect of climate
change that causes sea level fluctuations, ocean acidification and rising water temperatures.
Some used methodes are long term measurement of coastal erosion, long-shore and crossshore sediment transport; benchmarking and 3D measurement of ship movement related to
ocean dynamics; measurement of pH and temperature changes; and measurement of
corrosion rate. These experiments also help us to recognize the impact of larger
meteorological episodes of extreme weather that contribute to physical and mechanical
damages indicative of disaster. This is an example of how the Ministry attempts to combine
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various research schemes and how the protection of UCH is considered as part of the
development plans.
EXAMPLES OF UNDERWATER CULTURAL HERITAGE IN INDONESIA
Based on the provisions of Indonesian Law No. 11/2010 regarding Cultural Heritage
Preservation, human remains dated older than 50 years can be considered as cultural heritage.
Underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia includes shipwrecks, aircraft wreckages, and a
breadth of various types of underwater artifacts that date, so far, from the 7th century CE to
WWII. For example, the oldest shipwreck found in Indonesia is dated to the 7th century CE
and located in Punjulharjo, Rembang Regency (Priyanto 2011). The most famous shipwreck
site is the reknowned 9th century CE Belitung shipwreck site, also known as the ”Tang
Treasure Cargo", and its reconstruction, the Jewel of Muscat (Ridwan 2014c; Vosmer 2010).
There are also numerous shipwreck sites dating from the WWII era such as MV Boelongan
Nederland in West Sumatra, the USAT Liberty in Bali, the Ashigara shipwreck in Bangka
Island, as well as other Japanese shipwrecks located in Sulawesi Island and Mollucas Islands
(Ridwan 2014b). Furthermore, UCH in Indonesia also includes aircraft wreckages from WW
II in Halmahera and Papua, such as Catalina in Biak, and P47 Thunderbolt in Raja Ampat
Islands (Indonesian Delegates 2014; Ridwan 2013), and recently, the remains of a Nazi
submarine were identified in Karimun Jawa, Java Sea (Indra 2014). Other sites in Indonesian
waters in the regions of Selayar, Mentawai, and Natuna include various assemblages of
scattered artifacts (Research Institite for Coastal Resources and Vulnerability 2012; Research
and Development Center for Marine and Coastal Resources 2011; Ridwan 2011).
ISSUES AND CURRENT LEGISLATION
Some issues related to maritime archaeology in Indonesia are the lack of research activities
and application of science and technology associated with coastal resources and their
vulnerability. Protection and management of underwater cultural heritage is yet optimal, and
it is affected by weakness in law enforcement related to the number of looting and illegal
salvaging cases of UCH (Djalal 2007). The protection, preservation, and utilization of
maritime/underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia can be enforced by designating the sites
with the status of "Maritime Conservation Area", according to the provisions contained in
Ministerial Decree of Marine Affairs No. 17/2008 regarding Conservation Zone in Coastal
Area and Small Islands. This regulation was established to follow the Law No.1/2014 on the
Management of Coastal Areas and Small Islands, which aims to regulate marine spatial
planning and protection as well as management of coastal areas and small islands. Based on
the decree, the protection and management of coastal, marine, and small islands' resources
should be in the framework of sustainable development which aims to improve the welfare of
the society. These legislations can protect Maritime Conservation Areas that include
underwater cultural heritage having specific historical and/or archeological value due to its
potential contribution to research in history, science, and culture. Maritime/underwater
cultural heritage in coastal areas and small islands requires an integrative management
paradigm to provide maximum benefit to the local community. The Ministry's intention is
comprehensively and integrally to unify methodologies in ecology, culture, and economy
(Idris 2009).
A number of activities that can support the implementation of policy of marine resources
protection and development in Indonesia are:
1. Spatial planning of coastal and small islands
2. Integrated coastal management (including disaster mitigation and rehabilitation of
ecosystems)
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3. Establishment of marine protected areas aimed at renewing biodiversity
4. Eestablishment of maritime conservation area to protect underwater cultural heritage sites
5. Management of small islands which includes the support of marine tourism, and
community empowerment and enterprise development of the marine and fisheries sector.
In terms of legislation for underwater/maritime heritage protection and the technical
implementation of maritime archaeological research activities in Indonesia, there are a
number of laws and regulations that must be followed, namely:
1. Law No.1/2014 on Regional Management of Coastal and Small Islands
2. Law No.11/2010 on the Protection of Cultural Heritage
3. Law No.17/1985 on the Ratification of United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
(UNCLOS)1982
4. Law No. 32/2004 on Regional Autonomy
5. Law No. 10/2009 on Tourism
6. Law No. 4/1982 on Environmental Management
7. Government regulation No. 20/1990 on Water Pollution Control
8. Government Regulation No. 51/1993 on Environmental Impact Analysis
9. Government Regulation No. 82/2001 on Water Quality Management
10.
Ministerial Decree of Marine Affairs and Fisheries No. 17/2008 on Conservation
Areas in Coastal and Small Islands
11.
Ministerial Decree of Environment No. 51/2004 on Sea Water Quality Standard
In addition to domestic regulations, Indonesia also has tried to implement a number of
international legislations relating to underwater cultural heritage and to use them as guidance
for protecting the heritage. These international laws are UNCLOS 1982 Article 149 and 303,
the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage in 2001, and the
International Council of Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) Charter on the Protection and
Management of the Underwater Cultural Heritage, 1996. Most importantly, it is the Annex of
the UNESCO 2001 Convention for the Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage
(henceforth the UNESCO 2001 Convention) which includes the code of practice, which
needs now to be implemented and applied thoroughly in Indonesia in order to research and
preserve underwater cultural heritage.
THREATS
Natural Factors
Globally, underwater archaeological sites are vulnerable to a variety of damages caused by
nature or human factors (Flemming 2011). The UNESCO 2001 Convention states that
underwater archaeology sites are not only threatened by human activity, but also by
environmental changes caused by earthquakes, storms, temperature variations, changes in
currents and coastal erosion. Natural factors contributing to the threat of heritage in Indonesia
includes shoreline erosion, internal ocean waves, earthquakes, tsunamis, seismic and vulcanic
activities, ocean acidification, sea-level rise and physical environment dynamics (Husrin
2014; Indonesian Delegates 2014; Ridwan 2014a). The condition of many maritime and
underwater heritages in Indonesia are alarmingly precarious, and some are vulnerable to
physical environment conditions that qualifies them as endangered. Normally, a site that is
buried under anaerobic sediment will reach a stable state with low oxygen and low light
levels that will reduce the process of material degradation caused by chemical, physical and
biological factors. However, changes in the physical dynamics of the sea such as the tides and
the change of wind can stimulate current changes that leads to greater activity of transport of
sediment,which in turn affects the exposure or the accumulation of sediment in underwater
sites (UNESCO 2010), and threaten them.
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Current understanding of the natural threats on cultural heritage draws upon studies of the
direct impacts of climate change applied to maritime/underwater heritage sites. Climate
change significantly affects coastal areas and the sea, and can cause issues in the preservation
of maritime and underwater cultural relics. Rapid unforeseen climate change may also
exacerbate damage, contributing to artefacts becoming brittle due to rapid weathering. The
direct impact of changes in tidal coastal areas shows high potential to accelerate the loss of
maritime cultural heritage. Meanwhile, there are also indirect impacts of climate change on
heritage such as the levels of humidity, salt crystallization, pests, biologic effects, and
chemical changes (Atmojo 2011; Satriawan 2011; Yoesoef 2011).
Manders (2012) mentioned that some of the primary threats to underwater archaeology
heritage are: physical-mechanical, biological, and chemical threats. Physical-mechanical
threats can result in objects being removed and displaced. Objects becoming exposed are
therefore more vulnerable to deterioration. Surfaces of objects get eroded and parts of the site
may disappear.The biological threats tounderwater sites are, for the most part, dependent on
the presence of oxygen. Examples of biological deterioration include marine borers
(especially teredo navalis or shipworm), fungi, and bacteria. Chemical processes can also
affect the integrity of archaeological objects. One of the most common degradation processes
is the corrosion of iron and other metals, which happen especially in oxygen rich
environments. Generally, the less oxygen there is, the less corrosion occurs. Extreme weather
in ocean can cause high waves and strong currents, causing physical-mechanical damage on
shipwrecks and increasing the shoreline and the site erosion. An increase in ocean
temperatures and ocean acidification leads to damage to shipwrecks associated with chemical
and biological threats.
This should be addressed promptly because underwater sites are being damaged and lost,
resulting in major impacts on the quality and quantity of available maritime heritage. Extreme
weather, due to ocean dynamics, greatly affects the sustainability of underwater sites in
Indonesia, an example of which is the USAT Liberty shipwreck site in Bali (see below). The
movement of water currents, tides, high waves (especially in extreme weather conditions, see
Figure 1) causes physical damage to the site and accelerates the fragility of the USAT Liberty
shipwreck. Extreme weather due to global recent climate change which has occurred lately in
Bali has had an adverse effect on the shipwreck and its ecosystem. Some parts of the ship’s
hull have been were broken post extreme weather (see Figure 2), coral reefs have experienced
stress, and many fish species have dissapeared today. In 1998, the coral reef on USAT Liberty
site experienced severe bleaching due to El Nino (Ridwan 2014a).
Figure 1
Figure 2
Human Factors
Human activities can also cause major as threats to the sustainable preservation of
underwater/maritime cultural heritage in Indonesia (Ridwan 2011; 2014a; Susanto 2005). A
number of human activities that potentially damage the underwater heritage sites include
pillaging and illegal salvaging, destructive fishing methods, anchoring, ship movement,
mining activities, infrastructure development, factories, household pollution, as well as
uncontrolled diving tourism industry. Since 1980s until nowadays, the biggest danger to
shipwreck sites in Indonesia are pillaging or illegal salvaging. In addition, at this time,
uncontrolled mass diving tourism is also another major threat that may be harmful to a
number of underwater sites in Indonesia (Ridwan 2014a; 2014b). Investigation researches
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conducted by the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries in some areas in Indonesia have
also exposed many illegal and destructive fishing activites, such as the use of explosives and
poison that destroy marine ecosystems including habitats that have developed in underwater
archaeological sites. Anchor turbation or ships anchors scraping the seabed often damages
and destroys both underwater natural and cultural heritage (Ministry of Marine Affairs and
Fisheries 2012).
“Sunken treasure” pillaging: the Mentawai and Natuna case studies
Pillaging cases of "sunken treasure" from underwater cultural heritage sites in Indonesia have
occurred since the 1980s and continue to this day. From 2010 to 2012, the Ministry worked
together with the Ministry of Education and Culture to investigate the case of illegal
salvaging carried out by local fishermen and irresponsible local governments in Mentawai
Island, West Sumatra. In December 2010, a shipwreck site was first discovered by the team
of the Disaster Management Task Force. They were searching for tsunami victims and
monitoring coral reef damage caused by the earthquake and tsunami that hit Mentawai on 26
October 2010. The illegal salvaging of artefacts from this shipwreck site was done by local
people led by the Head of Coastal Fish Breeding Center Sikakap, Mentawai Regency. His
team included two staff from his office, one staff of the Office of Fisheries Mentawai
Regency, and some local fishermen. Eventually it was discovered that was a shipwreck
treasure hunting company based in a foreign country was working behind the operations. The
company appeared to be financing all the illegal salvage activities.This team illegally lifted
hundreds of artifacts to the surface. One of the team members confessed that many
masterpieces from provenance this shipwreck site were taken by this foreign company.
Further, many artifacts were distributed to various influential persons who asked for some
samples, some other artefacts (especially gold artefacts) were sold to fulfill living needs of
the team members and some were "entrusted" to the local police department. The rest of the
artefacts were confiscated by the Ministry of Education and Culture and are now housed in
the Batusangkar Office for Cultural Heritage Preservation. These latter mentioned artefacts
are being analysed and studied to determine date, origin, and typology. Further observations
revealed more archaeologically material, such as a human skeleton, and disparate artefacts
such as a dragon glass jug, some brass weights, chinese coins, gold coins, silver coins, gold
bracelets, American dollars coins dated to 1883, Dutch East Indies government coins dated to
1858, a sleeping Buddha bronze statue, blue-white ceramics jars, plates and vases, cannon, a
bronze Buddha's head, wooden stamp with the date 1736 written on it (see Figure 3), bronze
rings, earthenware fragments, ball lead bullets, a gold-plated copper shield (see Figure 4), and
water kettle lead (Ministry of Marine Affairs Report 2010). Currently the case is still being
investigated by the police department and the prosecutor of West Sumatra Province.
Figure 3
Figure 4
Another interesting looting case occurred in 2011-2012 in Natuna Islands, Riau Island
Province. The Natuna Islands compose the northernmost Indonesian archipelago which lies
between Vietnam and Cambodia in the North; Singapore, Malaysia in the West; East
Malaysia and West Kalimantan in the East; and South Sumatra and Jambi in the South. In
2011, a research team from the Research and Development Centre for Marine and Coastal
Resources, of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, conducted a marine archaeology
survey at the site of Karang Kapal Pecah which is administratively located in Sepempang
Village, Bunguran Timur Sub-District, Natuna Regency. The team discovered an underwater
site at 17 – 19 m depth, including the remains of a wooden hull and some metal fragments
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along with a metal mast. The team also found an assemblage of artefacts scattered in this site
composed of thousands of bottles (some bottles with the indication “Royal Germany Spa”
and "James Walworth Surrey" (see Figure 5)), as well as piles of square-shaped glass,
ceramic fragments, wooden fragments, metal fragments, and lead beads. There was a copper
plate with “Water Distilling Apparatus London” written on it staff maintenance (see Figure
6). This shipwreck was salvaged by local people who also informed The Ministry that lead
beads in significant amounts had been salvaged by the local fishermen over the years.
According to the identification of the artefacts, it may be that these artefacts come from a
steamship which sailed from or to England in the 1900s. The ship was carrying passengers
and cargo, surpassing Natuna Island and when she probably experienced bad weather and hit
a granite rock which are commonly can be found scattered along the Natunas coastal areas, to
finally sink in the waters near Sepempang Village (Ministry of Marine Affairs Report 2011).
Figure 5
Figure 6
This site is important as it provides archaeological and historical evidence for shipping,
trading, and travelling along the seafaring routes that were passing by the Natuna islands. In
2012, the local community reported the theft committed by a rich and powerful resident on
the island who had hired Vietnamese fishermen to raise the artifacts from the Karang Kapal
Pecah site. They lifted thousands of glass bottles along with ceramics, metal objects, and
others artefacts that resulted in the massive destruction of the site. Most artifacts were
removed from the site, but luckily a few were seized by the Police Department of Natuna as
crime evidence of this looting activity, and some were put into the custody of the the
community museum in Natuna, Sri Serindit Museum. This case is currently under
investigation by the Natuna local police and by the Ministry of Education and Culture.
Meanwhile this theft case news has was been reported and published in national newspaper
(Kompas 2012).
Uncontrolled Diving Tourism Industry
Diving tourism industry is currently growing rapidly in Indonesia and its development is a
double-edged sword. On one side, the diving industry can significantly improve the social
and economic welfare of the local community, but on the other hand, if it is not handled
properly, the diving industry can damage underwater sites. The ravages caused by
irresponsible tourist behavior may not be as dramatic as the physical–mechanical damage
caused by extreme weather and other natural threats like tsunamis and earthquakes, but they
contribute progressively to the slow destruction of underwater cultural heritage sites (Viduka
2006). The USAT Liberty site in Bali is a good example to demonstrate how mass tourism can
impact negatively on the preservation of important underwater sites in Indonesia.
USAT Liberty is a WWII shipwreck which attracts many divers. The site is important not
only for the local villagers in the nearby village of Tulamben alone but also for the people of
the whole Bali Province, since almost all dive operators in Bali offer a dive trip to the wreck.
The excessive presence of divers – which reaches 200-400 people per day (see Figure 7 and
Figure 8) – and their impact on ship’s preservation and its environment have not been
examined by local governments. They do not realize that the large number of divers who
perform underwater activities create tremendous pressure on USAT Liberty and its ecosystem.
Nowadays the local dive guides have denounced the negative changes and damages on the
USAT Liberty and its ecosystem.They mention the disappearance of many fish species from
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the shipwreck site and the fact that many coral reefs have been damaged and destroyed by the
divers' negligence and carelessness (Pickell and Wally 2010; Ridwan 2014a).
Figure 7
Figure 8
Divers unintentionally destroy the site, but the main issue resides in the fact that the majority
of tourists are beginners learning to dive and there to obtain a diving certification. The novice
diver who has not yet mastered the technique of buoyancy, his/her uncontrolled flapping fin,
holding on to the hull or attempts to penetrate the wreck unfortunately contribute to destroy
the fragile shipwreck and disturb the marine life surrounding it. The divers' fin kicking
agitates the sandy seabed, which results in killing local fauna and destroying some sensitive
coral reefs by covering them with sand (Ridwan2014a). Moreover, the habit of most divers to
feed the fish also has negative impacts and is against the rules of fisheries conservation. The
large number of divers may also lead to the exposure of the sandy sea floor in USAT Liberty
site. Therefore, there is strong necessity to implement some rules nationally and locally so
that the diving tourism industry continues to run well, whilst limiting its harm to underwater
sites.
CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS
The aforementioned case studies of UCH under threat were studied during the past years
under the direction of the Ministry ofMarineAffairsandFisheries. The Ministry,through
Research and Development Center for Marine and Coastal Resources, started conducting
research within the field of maritime archeology since 2000. Until 2005 the focus of the
research was to identify, inventory, and map maritime and underwater cultural heritage sites
in some waters in Belitung, Sulawesi Island, and Java Island. From 2005 to 2011, the focus of
our research in the ministry has expanded not only to identify and inventory shipwreck
remains but also to conduct research in along the water environment surrounding the site.
This change in the focus is aimed at developing research for marine-heritage tourism
management in accordance to the policies in our ministry. We also began to use marine and
geophysical devices such as side scan sonar, echosounder, water quality checker, wave and
tide gauge, acoustic doppler current profiller and others. Since 2008, maritime archaeology
research is also directed to assess the importance of the different shipwreck sites to be
protected by the law and to be designated as a protected marine conservation zone if
necessary.
Facing the increasing need to improve the protection and preservation of the USAT Liberty
shipwreck site in Bali and MV. Boelongan Nederland shipwreck site in West Sumatera, it
became imperative to conduct research on the vulnerability of the underwater cultural
heritage and identify threat factors, both natural and human, in order to develop an adequate
protection strategy. This is why since 2012, the Ministry decided to conduct a major project
to determine the sites' significance and value and to identify and analyze their vulnerability.
In conducting maritime archaeology research every year, the Ministry always tries to carry
out an integrated and multidisciplinary research involving various fields of knowledge and
expertise such as physical oceanograpy, marine ecology, seascapes in geography (with the
use of Geographic Information System softwares), marine geology and so on. The aim being
to measure currents, tides, waves, and other ocean dynamics in environmental changes and
extreme weather contexts; to measure the sedimentation rate, erosion, and shoreline changes
in shipwreck site area; and to measure the changes in temperature, salinity, pH, and other
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water quality parameters, both physical and chemical. We also always cooperate with
relevant institutions, local governments, local universities, and local stakeholders. The results
of our researches are expected to provide data and information about the value of underwater
cultural heritage and the threats they are under based on a scientific approach, and to provide
recommendations to local governments and local stakeholders who will manage the sites in
the region.
Maritime archaeology research is also intended as awareness-raising programs to local
governments and other stakeholders. By involving them, we hope our research could inspire
them to pay more attention on the importance of the efforts necessary to protect, preserve and
develop the underwater cultural heritage located in their area. Therefore, the people could
actively participate in preserving and protecting underwater cultural heritage in Indonesia.
The purpose of maritime archaeology is not only to be “preserved for the records”, but to also
seek solutions. Maritime archaeology in Indonesia has a fundamental role and is at the basis
for implementing policy and taking action to benefit local communities, increase local
revenue, and increase foreign exchange.
REMARKS
As we have seen, maritime archaeological resources and underwater cultural heritage
comprising shipwrecks, aircrafts, and cargoes of various ages can be found scattered in nearly
all Indonesian waters. They can be resources for enjoyment asdiving tourismdestination,as
wellasresourcesfordeveloping research. We believe that proper research, preservation, and
management could benefit the people in Indonesia, and that it is fundamental but it is also
important to raise awareness in order to encourage the local community, the general public,
and government atall levels so asto minimize the threats to UCH, both natural and human.
Planned research, protection, conservation, are urgently needed in Indonesia in the interest of
society at the present time and for future generations. The Annex of the UNESCO 2001
Convention should be applied.This will hopefully lead to a sustainable management of the
region's resources that will reduce the impact of the threats which will at the same time that it
will improve the livelyhood of the local communities through the responsible use of UCH
resources.
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