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Chapter
3
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1

Ahead:
 Basic Physiology of Cardiorespiratory
Endurance Exercise
 Benefits of Cardiorespiratory
Endurance Exercise
 Assessing Cardiorespiratory Fitness
 Developing a Cardiorespiratory Endurance
Program
 Exercise Safety and Injury Prevention
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2

Cardiorespiratory system: system
that circulates blood through the body;
consists of the heart, blood vessels, and
respiratory system
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
Heart
 Fist-sized muscle with four chambers
 Pulmonary circulation: circulatory system that
moves blood between the heart and the lungs;
controlled by the right side of the heart
 Systemic circulation: circulatory system that
moves blood between the heart and the rest of the
body; controlled by the left side of the heart
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
Heart
 Waste-laden, oxygen-poor blood travels through
venae cavae into the heart’s right upper chamber,
or atrium
▪ Venae cavae: large veins through which blood is returned
to the right atrium of the heart
▪ Atrium: one of the two upper chambers of the heart in
which blood collects before passing to the ventricles
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
Heart
 After the right atrium fills, it contracts and pumps
blood into the heart’s right lower chamber, or
ventricle
▪ Ventricle: one of the two lower chambers of the heart from
which blood flows through arteries to the lungs and other
parts of the body
 Diffusion: process of oxygen moving from lungs
to the blood and carbon dioxide moving from blood
to the lungs
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
Heart
 Aorta: the body’s large artery, which receives blood
from the left ventricle and distributes it to the body
 Systole: contraction of the heart
 Diastole: relaxation of the heart
 Blood pressure: the force exerted by the blood on
the walls of the blood vessels; created by the
pumping action of the heart
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
Blood vessels
 Classified by size and function
 Veins: vessels that carry
blood to the heart
 Arteries: vessels that carry
blood away from the heart
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
Blood vessels
 Endothelial cells: cells lining the blood vessels
 Nitric oxide: a gas released by the endothelial cells
to promote blood flow
 Capillaries: very small blood vessels that distribute
blood to all parts of the body
 Coronary arteries: pair of large blood vessels that
branch off the aorta and supply the heart muscle
with oxygenated blood
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
Respiratory system
 Respiratory system: the lungs, air passages, and
breathing muscles; supplies oxygen to the body
and removes carbon dioxide
 Alveoli: tiny air sacs in the lungs that allow the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between
the lungs and blood
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11

Cardiorespiratory system at rest
and during exercise
 At rest, your heart beats at a rate of about 50 to 90
beats per minute, and you take about 12 to 20
breaths per minute
▪ Stroke volume: amount of blood the heart pumps with
each beat
▪ Cardiac output: amount of blood pumped by the heart
each minute; a function of heart rate and stroke volume
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12
Metabolic rate: rate at which the body
uses energy
 Energy from food

 Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
▪ Glucose: simple sugar that circulates in blood and is used
by cells to fuel ATP production
▪ Glycogen: complex carbohydrate stored in the liver and
skeletal muscles; the major fuel source during most forms
of intense exercise; the storage form of glucose
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
ATP (adenosine triphosphate):
the energy “currency” of cells
 Adenosine triphosphate: energy source for
cellular processes
 Cells store small amount of ATP
 When they need more, they create it through
chemical reactions using the body’s stored fuels—
glucose, glycogen, and fat
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
Immediate (“explosive”) energy system:
supplies energy to muscle cells through
breakdown of cellular stores of ATP and CP
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
Nonoxidative (anaerobic) energy system:
supplies energy to muscle cells through
breakdown of muscle stores of glucose and
glycogen
 Anaerobic: occurring in the absence of oxygen
 Lactic acid: metabolic acid resulting from the
metabolism of glucose and glycogen
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
Oxidative (aerobic) energy system:
supplies energy to cells through breakdown
of glucose, glycogen, and fats; also called the
aerobic system
 Aerobic: dependent on the presence of oxygen
 Mitochondria: cell structures that convert the
energy in food to a form the body can use
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
Maximal oxygen consumption (V̇O2max):
highest rate of oxygen consumption an
individual is capable of during maximum
physical effort, reflecting the body’s ability to
transport and use oxygen
 Measured in milliliters of oxygen used per minute
per kilogram of body weight
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18

Energy systems in combination
 Intensity and duration of exercise determines
which
energy system predominates

Physical fitness and energy production
 Fitness program should target the energy system
most important to your goals
 Cardiorespiratory system is the key to overall
fitness
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19
ENERGY
SYSTEM *
DURATION OF
ACTIVITY FOR
WHICH SYSTEM
PREDOMINATES
INTENSITY OF
ACTIVITY FOR
WHICH SYSTEM
PREDOMINATES
IMMEDIATE
0-10 seconds
High
Immediate,
very rapid
Adenosine
triphosphate
(ATP), creatine
phosphate (CP)
NONOXIDATIVE 10 seconds2 minutes
High
OXIDATIVE
Low to moderately
high
Less than
2 minutes
OXYGEN
USED?
SAMPLE
ACTIVITIES
No
Weight lifting,
picking up a bag
of groceries
Rapid
Muscle stores of No
glucose and
glycogen
400-meter run,
running up
several flights of
stairs
Slower, but
prolonged
Body stores of
Yes
glycogen,
glucose, fat, and
protein
1500-meter run,
30-minute walk,
standing in line
for a long time
RATE OF ATP
FUEL
PRODUCTION
*For most activities, all three systems contribute to energy production; the duration and intensity of the activity determine which system
predominates.
SOURCE:
Adapted from Brooks, G. A., et al. 2005. Exercise Physiology: Human Bioenergetics and Its Applications, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
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20

Cardiorespiratory endurance exercise
helps the body:
 Become more efficient
 Cope better with
physical challenges
 Resist chronic
diseases
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
Endurance exercises enhance heart health
 Maintaining or increasing the heart’s blood and





oxygen supply
Improving the heart muscle’s function
Strengthening the heart’s contractions
Increasing the heart’s cavity size
Increasing blood volume
Reducing blood pressure
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23

Cardiorespiratory training improves metabolism
 Increases capillaries in muscles
 Trains muscles to make the
most of oxygen and fuel
 Increases size and number of
mitochondria
 Prevents glycogen depletion
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





Cardiovascular diseases
Cancer
Type 2 diabetes
Osteoporosis
Inflammation: body’s response to tissue and
cell damage, environmental poisons, or poor
metabolic health
Deaths from all causes
 Physically fit people have reduced risk of dying
prematurely
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
Better control of body fat
 Regular exercise increases daily calorie expenditure
 Exercise increases resting metabolic rate

Improved immune function
 Immune system: physiological processes that
protect us from diseases

Improved psychological and emotional
well-being
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SOURCE: Wen, M., et al. 2014. Physical activity and mortality among middle-aged and
older adults in the United States. Journal Physical Activity & Health. 11(2): 303–312
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27

Choosing an assessment test
 1-Mile Walk Test:
▪ Measures the amount of time it takes to complete one mile
of brisk walking and the heart rate at the end of the walk
▪ Fast time and low heart rate indicate high
cardiorespiratory endurance
 3-Minute Step Test
▪ Measures how long it takes the pulse to return to normal
after three minutes of stepping exercise
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
Choosing an assessment test
 1.5-Mile Run-Walk Test
▪ Oxygen consumption increases with speed
 Beep Test
▪ A prerecorded series of tones sound off at faster and faster
intervals, and the exerciser must keep up with the beeps
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
Monitoring your heart rate
 Measure your heart rate using a heart rate monitor
or by counting your pulse beats
▪ Carotid artery (neck)
▪ Radial artery (wrist)

Interpreting Your Score
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Courtesy Robin Mouat
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




Set realistic goals
Set starting frequency,
intensity, and duration of
exercise at appropriate levels
Choose suitable activities
Warm up and cool down
Adjust your program as
fitness improves
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
Set “SMART” goals
 Specific
 Measurable
 Attainable
 Realistic
 Time frame–specific
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
Frequency of training
 Experts recommend 3 to 5 days per week

Intensity of training
 Target heart rate zone: heart rates that should be
reached and maintained during cardiorespiratory
exercise to obtain training effects
 Heart rate reserve: difference between maximum
heart rate and resting heart rate
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
Intensity of training
 MET: unit of measure that represents body’s resting
metabolic rate
 Ratings of perceived exertion (RPE): system of
monitoring exercise intensity based on assigning a
number to the subjective perception of target
intensity
 Talk test
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AGE (years)
TARGET HEART
RATE ZONE (bpm)*
15-SECOND
COUNT (beats)
20−24
127-180
32-45
25−29
124-176
31-44
30−34
121-171
30−43
35−39
118−167
30−42
40−44
114−162
29−41
45−49
111−158
28−40
50−54
108−153
27−38
55−59
105−149
26−37
60−64
101−144
25−36
97−140
24−35
65+
*Target heart rates lower than those shown here are appropriate for individuals with a very low initial level
of fitness. Ranges are based on the following formula: target heart rate = 0.65 to 0.90 of maximum heart
rate, assuming maximum heart rate = 220 − age.
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ACTIVITY
METs
CALORIC METs EXPENDITURE PER MINUTE
1
1.2
Light housework
2-4
2.4−4.8
Bowling
2−4
2.5−5
Walking
2−7
2.5−8.5
Archery
3−4
3.7−5
Dancing
3−7
3.7−8.5
Hiking
3−7
3.7−8.5
Horseback riding
3−8
3.7−10
Cycling
3−8
3.7−10
Basketball (recreational)
3−9
3.7−11
Swimming
4−8
5−10
Tennis
4−9
5−11
Fishing (fly, stream)
5−6
6−7.5
In-line skating
5-8
6−10
Skiing (downhill)
5−8
6−10
Rock climbing
5−10
6−12
Scuba diving
5−10
6−12
Skiing (cross-country)
6−12
7.5−15
Jogging
8−12
10−15
Rest
NOTE:
Intensity varies greatly with effort, skill, and motivation.
Adapted from American College of Sports Medicine. 2013. ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and
Prescription, 9th ed. Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health.
SOURCE:
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SOURCE: Pick, H. L., ed. 1978. Psychology from
Research to Practice. Kluwer Academic/Plenum
Publishing Corporation. With kind permission of
Springer Science and Business Media and the author.
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
Time (duration) of training
 Total duration of 20 to 60 minutes per day
recommended

Type of activity
 Cardiorespiratory endurance exercises include
activities that involve rhythmic use of large-muscle
groups for an extended period of time
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Warm-up session should
include low-intensity, whole
body movements similar to
those in the activity that will
follow
 Cooling down returns the
body to a non-exercising
state

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
You must increase the intensity, frequency,
and duration of exercise carefully to avoid
injury and overtraining
 Keep an exercise log or training diary

Be aware of the pros and cons of interval
training for rapid improvement
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41
MODERATE
INTENSITY
VIGOROUS
INTENSITY
Percentage of maximum heart
rate
55−69%
70−90%
Heart rate reserve
40−59%
60−85%
Rating of perceived exertion
12−13 (somewhat hard)
14−16 (hard)
Talk test
Speech with some difficulty
Speech limited to short phrases
METHOD
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FREQUENCY
(days/week)
INTENSITY*
(beats/minute)
TIME
Duration in minutes)
1
3
120-130
15-20
2
3
120-130
20-25
3
4
130-145
20-25
4
4
130-145
25-30
5-7
3-4
145-160
25-30
8-10
3-4
145-160
30-35
11-13
3-4
150-165
30-35
14-16
4-5
150-165
30-35
17-20
4-5
160-180
35-40
21-24
4-5
160-180
35-40
3-5
160-180
20-60
STAGE/WEEK
Initial stage
Improvement stage
Maintenance stage
25+
*The target heart rates shown here are based on calculations for a healthy 20-year-old with a resting heart rate of 60 beats per minute; the
program progresses from an initial target heart rate of 50% to a maintenance range of 70-85% of heart rate reserve.
SOURCE:
Adapted from American College of Sports Medicine, 2013. ACSM's Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 9th ed.
Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Health. Reprinted with permission from the publisher.
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Continue at the same intensity at least three
nonconsecutive days per week
 Cross-training: alternating two or more
activities to improve a single component of
fitness

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
Hot weather and heat stress
 Dehydration: excessive loss of body fluid
 Heat cramps: sudden muscle spasms and pain
associated with intense exercise in hot weather
 Heat exhaustion: illness resulting from exertion in
hot weather
 Heatstroke: a severe and often fatal heat illness
characterized by significantly elevated core body
temperature
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
Cold weather
 Hypothermia: low body temperature due to
exposure to cold conditions
 Frostbite: freezing of body tissues characterized by
pallor, numbness, and a loss of cold sensation
 Wind chill: measure of how cold it feels based on
the rate of heat loss from exposed skin caused by
cold and wind

Poor air quality
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
Consult a physician for the following:
 Head and eye injuries
 Possible ligament injuries
 Broken bones
 Internal disorders such as chest pain, fainting,
and heat intolerance
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
Managing minor exercise injuries
 For cuts and scrapes, stop the bleeding and
clean the wound
 For injuries to muscles and joints, use RICE
▪
▪
▪
▪
Rest
Ice
Compression
Elevation
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INJURY
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
Blister
Accumulation of fluid in one spot under the
skin
Don't pop or drain it unless it interferes too much with your
daily activities. If it does pop, clean the area with
antiseptic and cover with a bandage. Do not remove the
skin covering the blister.
Bruise (contusion)
Pain, swelling, and discoloration
R-I-C-E: rest, ice, compression, elevation.
Fracture and/or
dislocation
Pain, swelling, tenderness, loss of function,
and deformity
Seek medical attention, immobilize the affected area, and
apply cold.
Joint sprain
Pain, tenderness, swelling, discoloration, and R-I-C-E; apply heat when swelling has disappeared. Stretch
loss of function
and strengthen affected area.
Muscle cramp
Painful, spasmodic muscle contractions
Gently stretch for 15−30 seconds at a time and/or massage
the cramped area. Drink fluids and increase dietary salt
intake if exercising in hot weather.
CONTINUED…
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INJURY
SYMPTOMS
TREATMENT
Muscle soreness or
stiffness
Pain and tenderness in the affected muscle
Stretch the affected muscle gently; exercise at a low
intensity; apply heat. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs, such as ibuprofen, help some people.
Muscle strain
Pain, tenderness, swelling, and loss of
strength in the affected muscle
R-I-C-E; apply heat when swelling has disappeared.
Stretch and strengthen the affected area.
Plantar fascitis
Pain and tenderness in the connective tissue
on the bottom of the foot
Apply ice, take nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, and
stretch. Wear night splints when sleeping.
Shin splint
Pain and tenderness on the front of the lower
leg; sometimes also pain in the calf muscle
Rest; apply ice to the affected area several times a day and
before exercise; wrap with tape for support. Stretch and
strengthen muscles in the lower legs. Purchase goodquality footwear and run on soft surfaces.
Side stitch
Pain on the side of the abdomen
Stretch the arm on the affected side as high as possible; if
that doesn’t help, try bending forward while lightening
the abdominal muscles.
Tendinitis
Pain, swelling, and tenderness of the affected
area
R-I-C-E; apply heat when swelling has disappeared.
Stretch and strengthen the affected area.
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
Preventing injuries
 Train regularly and stay in condition
 Gradually increase the intensity, duration, or




frequency of workouts
Avoid or minimize high-impact activities
Get proper rest between exercise sessions
Drink plenty of fluids
Warm up thoroughly before exercise and
cool down afterward
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
Preventing injuries
 Achieve and maintain a normal range of motion




in joints
Use proper body mechanics
Don’t exercise when you are ill or overtrained
Use proper equipment
Don’t return to your normal exercise program until
athletic injuries have healed
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Immediate effects:

Increased levels of neurotransmitters; constant or slightly increased blood flow to the brain.

Increased heart rate and stroke volume (amount of blood pumped per beat).

Increased pulmonary ventilation (amount of air breathed into the body per minute). More air is taken into the lungs with each
breath and breathing rate increases.

Reduced blood flow to the stomach, intestines, liver, and kidneys, resulting in less activity in the digestive tract and less urine
output.

Increased energy (ATP) production.

Increased blood flow to the skin and increased sweating to help maintain a safe body temperature.

Increased systolic blood pressure; increased blood flow and oxygen transport to working skeletal muscles and the heart;
increased oxygen consumption. As exercise intensity increases, blood levels of lactic acid increase.
Long-term effects:

Improved self-image, cognitive functioning, and ability to manage stress; enhanced learning, memory, energy level, and
sleep; decreased depression, anxiety, and risk for stroke.

Increased heart size and resting stroke volume; lower resting heart rate. Risk of heart disease and heart attack reduced
significantly.

Improved ability to extract oxygen from air during exercise. Reduced risk of colds and upper respiratory tract infections.

Increased sweat rate and earlier onset of sweating, helping to cool the body.

Decreased body fat.

Reduced risk of colon cancer and certain other forms of cancer.

Increased number and size of mitochondria in muscle cells; increased amount of stored glycogen; improved ability to use
lactic acid and fats as fuel. All of these changes allow for greater energy production and power output. Insulin sensitivity
remains constant or improves, helping to prevent type 2 diabetes. Fat-free mass may also increase somewhat.
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In a cardiorespiratory workout, heart rate should increase gradually with a 5-10 minute
warm-up that is under 65% training intensity. Endurance exercise should then last 20-60
minutes with a consistent training intensity above 65% but below 90%, keeping heart
rate in the target heart rate zone. A cool down period of 5-10 minutes allows a return to
resting heart rate.
FITT principle for cardiorespiratory workout:
Frequency: 3-5 days per week
Intensity: 55/65-90% of maximum heart rate, 40/50-85% of heart rate reserve plus
resting heart rate, or an RPE rating of about 12-18 (lower intensities—55-64% of
maximum heart rate and 40-49% of heart rate reserve—are applicable to people who
are quite unfit; for average individuals, intensities of 70-85% of maximum heart rate are
appropriate)
Time (duration): 20-60 minutes (one session or multiple sessions lasting 10 or more
minutes)
Type of activity: Cardiorespiratory endurance exercises, such as walking, jogging,
biking, swimming, cross-country skiing, and rope skipping
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