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Round-1
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Biodiversity and Ecological Aspects of Sacred Groves of India: An Overview
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4 Suggested title: SACRED GROVE STUDIES: LOOKOUT FOR NEW DIRECTIONS
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Introduction
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Sacred groves can be defined as segments of the landscape, containing trees and other forms of life and
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geographical features, that are delimited and protected by human societies because it is believed that to keep them
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in a relatively undisturbed state is an expression of important relationship to the divine or to nature (Hughes and
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Chandran, 1998). International Union for Conservation of Nature and natural Resources (IUCN), treats sacred
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groves under sacred natural sites (SNS) which can be clarified as “natural areas of special spiritual significance to
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peoples and communities. They include natural areas recognized as sacred by indigenous and traditional peoples, as
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well as natural areas recognized by institutionalized religions or faiths as places for worship and remembrance”
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(IUCN, 2005).
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Sacred groves per se, as preserved patches of natural vegetation, assumed greater importance with the arrival of
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agriculture. Rapid spread of agriculture and pastoralism necessitated clearances of vast stretches of primeval
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forests. The fear of offending the gods of nature and the adverse consequences of forest clearance in the form of
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soil erosion, drying up of watersheds, impoverishment of biodiversity, changes in microclimatic conditions, pest
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pressures etc. would have propelled the emergence of sacred grove-centered worship Sacred groves existed in the
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past or continue to exist today in many parts of the world, and among people with many religions and forms of
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social and economic organization. They were preserved in the name of gods in ancient Asia, Africa, Europe,
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America and Austro-pacific region (Hughes and Chandran, 1998).
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Throughout history, many peoples customarily respected sacred groves. These were sections of forest where
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spiritual beings were believed to reside, and where ordinary activities such as tree felling, gathering of wood, plants
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and leaves, hunting fishing, grazing of domestic animals, lowing or harvesting of crops, and building ordinary
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dwellings (Hughes and Swan, 1986). Indigenous cultures almost all over the world, worshipped deities associated
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with mountains and cliffs, rivers, springs and lakes, patches of forests, caves etc. It may be fear or gratitude or
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devotion which prompted people to assign sacredness to various natural sites or specific species of trees or animals.
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The role of these natural sacred sites is attracting increasing interest in international organizations such as
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UNESCO, the World Wide Fund for Nature etc. (Hay-Edie and Hadley, 1988).
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Sacred grove culture in India has pre-Vedic roots; the Vedic people though personified elemental forces of nature
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as divinities had no association with sacred grove culture of non-Vedic inhabitants (Chandran, 2005). The
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institution of sacred grove, is on the wane in India, its last important stronghold, though it is still very much a living
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tradition here. Called variously as jankor, sarana (Central India), jaher (West Bengal), orans (Rajasthan), kavus
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(Kerala), deorai (Maharashtra), devarakadus (Kodagu), lakyntang (Meghalaya), kans (parts of Karnataka) etc
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sacred groves also have been reported from Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Sikkim and other north-eastern states.
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The numbers of groves in these states/regions are in hundreds or in thousands. Nevertheless there is also urgent
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need to systematically inventories the sacred groves in various parts of the country (Malhotra, 1998).
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Sacred groves in the past were larger, each from few hectares to several hundred hectares in area. In the Sorab taluk
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in the central Western Ghats region of Karnataka, 171 kans covered over 13,000 ha of land. The largest of these
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was the Halesorabkan having an area of about 400 ha (Brandis and Grant, 1868). The remains of such kans can be
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found to this day in the region. These groves once formed more than 10% of the present geographical area of
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Sorab, and they were in addition to more extensive, fire- prone secondary forests, where biomass was extracted by
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the people (Chandran, 2005). The kan of Mulgund village in the adjoining Siddapur taluk covered 1039 ha, at the
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time when a forest working was formulated for extracting trees from the grove (Shanmukhappa, 1966). Most
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groves perished in due course of time due to reasons such as forest reservation by the state, beginning in the British
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period. The constitution of state-reserved forests replaced the earlier community based management systems. Later
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the groves were subjected to extraction pressures under organized forest working plans. Cultural changes leading to
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identification of woodland deities with gods of the Hindu pantheon was often followed by neglect and decline of
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those groves which continued to be under community control. Today large and in tact sacred groves are few and far
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between, as is the case in Uttara Kannada. An effort was made to reconstruct the traditional land use system in a 25
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sq.km area (when the lands were under community control) in the Siddapur taluk of Uttara Kannada, using
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historical records, forest working plans and folk history. It was found that about 6% of the landscape was under
sacred kans. This was probable because Siddapur taluk is located next to Sorab in the central Western Ghats, where
a similar system of sacred groves could have existed in most places, at altitudes below 1000 m, suitable for human
settlements, shifting cultivation and other land uses. Presently, in the same focal area of 25 sq.km, only 0.31% of
the land is under sacred groves (Chandran and Gadgil 1988). Many isolated large groves, however, continue to
exist in many parts of the country. The Hariyali sacred grove in the Chamoli district of Garhwal Himalaya is
reported to be 550 ha in size (Sinha and Maikhuri, 1988). A grove in Bhimashankar in Pune district is stated to be
over 700 ha (Borges and Rane, 1992). Sacred groves in Meghalaya varied in size from 0.01 ha to 900 ha (Tiwari et
al., 1998). The smaller sizes and concomitant species shrinkage notwithstanding, the present day groves are often
relics of past vegetation than secondary forests and many rare elements of biodiversity are still found in them.
The groves started shrinking in size with the expansion of agriculture. The growth of cities and increased use of
resources from the groves with the militaristic expansion of states in ancient days caused decline of groves in
ancient Europe. Arrival of dogmatic religions that professed faith in one Supreme God decried and demolished
many of these “paganic” (linked to rural folks) and ‘heathenish” (meaning anyone not a Jew, Christian or Muslim;
irreligious, uncivilized etc.) worship places in different parts of the world, particularly in Europe and West Asia.
Cultural changes leading to the identification of woodland deities with the high gods of the Hindu pantheon, an
ongoing process in India, has resulted in the growth of temple-centered worship to the decline of groves. The
greatest threat to sacred groves has been economic exploitation since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution.
Colonial times and afterwards, sacred groves in India were included in forests managed by the Forest Department,
and subjected to various extraction pressures or clear-cut to be replaced by plantations (Chandran and Hughes,
1997; Chandran, 1998; Hughes and Chandran, 1998).
The scientific community today recognizes this ancient system of preserving sacred groves amidst man-modified
landscape elements as one of the tenets of sustainable use of natural resources harmonized with biodiversity
conservation. The spiritual ties that humans established from ancient times with prime patches of forests ensured
not only the long term subsistence interest of local people but also kept going the dynamics of local ecosystems.
Their many gifts, especially water and non-timber products and the congenial microclimate they provided for local
cultivation systems, earned a prime place for sacred groves among the traditional village communities, especially
of the Indian highlands.
Scientific studies on the sacred groves of India got a fillip with the pioneering work of Gadgil and Vartak (1975,
1976, 1980). For the first time the groves were studied in a holistic way encompassing biologic, ecologic and
socio-cultural perspectives. More studies followed and several conferences held at nationally and internationally
on sacred groves and natural sacred sites resulting in sudden growth of literature on sacred groves over the last
three decades. Most studies hitherto can be broadly categorized into:
 Inventory and documentation
 Cultural aspects
 Biodiversity and ecological assessment
 Conservation status and conservation programmes
 Social and policy framework
Studies continue today on a much trodden path, with not many variations; basically they are region-wise
inventories dealing with numbers, area, major elements of biodiversity, especially of higher plants and vertebrates,
cultural aspects etc. They have not met with the expected success, to produce action plans to salvage and restore
scores of these relic forests with their rare biota and revive their ecological functions reminiscent of the primeval
forests. The governments of the states and centre are not sufficiently enthused to formulate plans for these precious
bits of forests. Sacred grove studies are in need of new directions to provide the necessary blueprints for future
conservation programs. Strengthening sacred-grove centered approach for revival of especially village ecosystems
in highlands and plains alike, through people’s participation, irrespective of caste or community, can certainly
invigorate India’s rural economy while also giving the world a decentralized alternative path for biodiversity
conservation, raising also fresh hopes for local level actions for mitigating global climatic change.
Sacred grove studies can take new directions only after a comprehensive appraisal of the work carried out already.
We have therefore attempted to review the nature of works carried out hitherto in the country. It needs to be
emphasized that the review is more on the kinds of studies carried out than on individual works per se. This
review, hopefully, would prompt researches to open new vistas in sacred grove studies aimed at unraveling more
on their functional aspects and ecosystem services, using well designed, locality-specific methods. More focus in
future should be on aspects of soil and water conservation, hydrological features, nutrient cycling, carbon
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sequestration, lower plant groups, invertebrates and micro-organisms. As their size-related effectiveness in floral
and faunal conservation in humanized landscapes etc. Such studies could ultimately lead to a more rational
approach to the much needed conservation and restoration of sacred groves, a heritage that is fading away fast even
from their last bastions in the Indian highlands. The scientific community has to spend more time on discussions
and formulation of suitable locality specific methods for sacred grove studies to achieve the new objectives.
Biodiversity assessment
Most sacred grove studies so far have focused mainly on biodiversity aspects. Despite their fragmentation and
isolation these cultural and biological relics are considered repositories of rare species in comparison to adjoining
landscape elements (Bhakat 2004, Bhagwat 2005,Khan et al 2008). Inventorisation of floral elements of the groves
include species composition and richness, dominance, distribution, rarity and endemism etc (Jain 1983, Vartak and
Kumbhojkar 1984, Puspanghadan et al 1996, Upadhaya et al. 2003, Amirthlinagam 2004, Khumbongmayum et al.
2005, ). Studies on faunal diversity of sacred groves are rather scanty.
Vegetation
Sacred groves present characteristic vegetation of a region or its’ remains. Sacred groves of Meghalaya, for
instance, represent subtropical wet hill evergreen forest type, characterized by Cinnamomum, Schima, Castanopsis,
Syzygium etc. The groves preserve the basic nature of the vegetation, that north-east geographic region is indeed a
confluence of the floral elements of the tropical and temperate as well of Sino-Himalayan and Burma-Malayan
regions (Jamir, 2003; Upadhaya et al, 2004). Down in the south, the Eastern Ghat groves have dry evergreen forest
vegetation with characteristic two-layered canopy, dominated by members of Fabaceae, Moraceae, Capparaceae,
Ebenaceae, Rubiaceae and Rutaceae (Parthasarathy, 1997; Sukumaran, 2005, 2007).
In Kerala, the wider
distribution of sacred groves reflects the varied vegetation profile of the state. Grove flora consists of wet
evergreen, semi evergreen, deciduous as well as swamp members depending on their locations. The highland
groves have typical Western Ghats forest type vegetation whereas, groves in mid altitudes present varied range of
vegetation from evergreen to semi evergreen forests including Myristica swamps. The swamps are dominated by
exclusive tree species such as Myristica magnifica (Endangered) and Gymnacranthera canarica of Myristicaceae,
one of the most primitive families of angiosperms. Some of the swampy groves in Uttara Kannada are the only
repositories in central Western Ghats of Syzygium travancoricum of and Madhuca bourdillnonii (both Critically
Endangered). Groves in coastal Kerala harbour species like Samadera indica, Vatica chinensis and Calophyllum
inophyllum. Sacred groves project a hopeful situation, being sometimes the last refuge for several plant species,
which have almost been wiped out due to massive anthropogenic pressure. Similarly a number of endemic species
which have narrow distribution range and high sensitivity to spatio-temporal changes are often subject to extinction
due to many adverse activities. Being a part of relic vegetation as well as under community based conservation, or
under forest department jurisdiction at present, groves often act as refugia for scores of rare and threatened species
(see (Table1 for details- the table may be deleted). Even, plants often thought as extinct have been
reported from the groves in Kerala and Karnataka (Induchoodan 1996, Pushpangadan et al 1998, Jayaraman 2004;
Chandran et al 2008).
It has been assumed that the microclimatic conditions of the larger groves are congenial for the climax vegetation
of a region. The smaller groves, however, subjected to isolation and higher human pressures tend to have a greater
mix of secondary and invasive species of plants (Induchoodan 1996, Ramanujam 2001). Many groves are
reasonably good for sustaining plant communities which are stable and regenerating as can be assessed from the
abundance of seedlings and saplings (Chandrashekara et al 1998, Mishra et al. 2005, Khumbongmayum 2006,
Laloo 2006,). Canopy gaps created by natural tree falls increase survival percentage of seedlings of grove species
due to better light conditions at ground level and provide suitable microenvironment favoring rapid growth of
ground layer plants (Khumbongmayum et al. 2005, Laloo et al 2006). Higher intensities of disturbance by humans,
particularly by tree cutting reduces canopy cover increasing light and temperature intensity at ground level, result
in proliferation of pioneer and invasive species, reduced tree diversity, increased dominance of few families and
contagious distribution (Rao et al. 1990, Chandrashekhara and Shankar 1998, Mishra et al. 2004).
Lower plants
Most sacred grove studies hitherto dealt with mainly higher plant species, though they could harbor interesting
lower plants. Brown et al (2006) studied 25 sacred groves of Western Ghats for macrofungi and reported distinct
assemblage of macrofungal members from these sites. The abundance of leaf litter and dead wood in the sacred
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groves are responsible for the unique assemblage of these decomposer fungi. Their morphotypes and sporcoarps
were in greater abundance than in the neighbouring coffee plantations. Apart from richness of organic matter the
sacred groves are free from application of fungicides. In another study in Mawphlang sacred grove, Meghalaya, 48
fungal species have been detected among which Aspergillus clavatus, A. flavus, A. niger, Cladosporium herbarum,
Fusarium moniliforme are dominant members (Kayang 2006). Fissidens kammadensis, a new moss species has
been recorded from a sacred grove of Kasargode district of Kerala (Manju et al.2008)
Faunal significance
A new frog species Philautus sanctisilvaticus has been reported from Amarkantak sacred grove in 1987. Deb et. al
(1997) in their study at western Midnapur district of West Bengal, mentioned about 22 land bird species in sacred
grove areas among which four species (Yellow legged green pigeon, Purple rumped sunbird, Coppersmith and
Large Indian parakeet) were found only in the groves. Similarly, around 107 species of birds were reported in a
study covering 25km2 of rural landscape, dominated by agricultural fields, and scrub vegetation, but studded with
the relics of several small sacred groves measuring mostly fractions of a hectare, in the Siddapur taluk of central
Western Ghats. These fragments had some of the typical birds of evergreen forests such as Crested goshawk,
Lesser serpent eagle, Blue-eared kingfisher, Brown-headed stork-billed kingfisher, Crimson-throated barbet and
Nilgiri flowerpecker. The cool shade throughout the year, higher humidity, and the availability of fleshy fruits may
be some of the reasons for these special birds to occur within the sacred groves (Chandran and Gadgil 1993). A
study from Kerala by associating the Nilgiri langur, an Endangered primate, and other rare vertebrates like, Slender
Loris, Pangolin, White bellied sea eagle with the groves also justifies their role as refugia for animals Nilgiri
langur. His study covering 578 groves listed 11 species of amphibians, 23 species of reptiles, 178 species of birds
and 24 species of mammals (Jayaraman 2004).
Much less are the studies on invertebrates. A study on the distribution of earthworms in a landscape of Uttarakhand
revealed that Eutyphoeus was exclusively found in the ‘Hariyali’ sacred oak forest. This exclusiveness was
attributed to its preference for higher soil moisture, high organic matter, lower pH and temperature and undisturbed
conditions prevalent in the grove. Earthworm population dynamics was analyzed in terms of land use type,
vegetation structure, moisture availability, organic matter content and C/N ratio. (Sinha et al 2003). Jayaraman’s
(2004) study of 578 sacred groves in Kerala listed 117 species of butterflies and 8 species of spiders in addition to
the vertebrates already mentioned earlier. In a remarkable study carried out in the Pilarkan sacred grove of Udupi
district of coastal Karnataka Mumbrekar and Madhyastha (2006) found 109 species of land mollusks, among
which 7 are endemics to the Western Ghats/ Peninsular India.
Economic importance
Most studies on sacred groves refer to the economic and subsistence values of sacred groves. Though there existed
taboo on cutting trees a variety of non-timber forests were traditionally harvested from especially larger sacred
groves. Black pepper (Piper nigrum), exported in large quantity from the South Indian west coast, from the time of
the Roman empire was mainly a product of the kans of Uttara Kannada and Shimoga. The forests of the kans
included various edible fruits and seeds, palm toddy, palm starch, medicinal plants etc. (Chandran and Gadgil,
1993). In fact a cornucopia of medicinal plants was reported from the sacred groves in different parts of India in
various studies. Strychnos nux-vomica (Loganiaceae), Gymnema sylvestre (Asclepiadaceae), Hemidesmus indicus
(Asclepiadaceae), Datura fastuosa (Solanaceae), Costus specious (Zingiberaceae), Rhus javanica (Anacardiaceae),
Agapetes auriculata (Vacciniaceae), Drymaria cordata (Caryophyllaceae) are just few among the scores of
medicinal plants. These plants were important in the primary health care of rural masses, and sometimes, as in the
case of forest dwellers, their only source.
Of the fruit trees associated with groves may be mentioned Mangifera indica, Garcinia gummi-gatta, Phyllanthus
emblica, Syzygium cumini etc., Spices such as Cinnamomum spp., Piper nigrum etc., oil yielding plants like
Garcinia spp. and Madhuca indica, fibre (Caryota urens, Bombax ceiba), tan and dye yielding plants (Acacia
nilotica, butea monosperma,), gum yielding plants (Acacia catechu, Bauhinia racemosa) and edible mushrooms
are reported from various groves.
(Table 2). Delete table)
Ecosystem functions and services
A large and intact grove represents a healthy forest ecosystem that renders valuable ecological services like, soil,
water and biodiversity conservation, nutrient cycling and temperature regulation. Carbon sequestration per unit
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area of the grove is expected to be greater than adjoining secondary forests, understandably due to higher biomass.
The studies on ecosystem functioning and services are still in infancy; some such notable studies are referred to in
Table 3. Obviously the area of a sacred grove plays a major role in ecosystem functioning and services. Small
fragmented groves, just like fragmented forests, must be having limited potential in rendering services compared to
larger ones. However, at a local level even these smaller groves have their own ecological roles. The groves also
enhance landscape heterogeneity.
Soil conservation
The undisturbed vegetation cover of the grove plays a significant role in soil conservation. When litter is allowed to
accumulate, organic material degrade , which returns nutrients to the soil and to the standing biomass. In the
process, many microorganisms, invertebrates, fungi etc. will flourish, and a vast array of species not indigenous to
ploughed fields and secondary forests will be present in the groves (Hughes and Chandran, 1998). Rajendraprasad
(1995) observed higher soil porosity and low bulk density for the soils of groves studied compared to the soils of
nearby areas in Kerala. The rich cover of leaf litter, humus and dense network of roots are important in preventing
erosion and in also soil building. In mountainous terrain especially, the rich vegetation of sacred groves play crucial
role in slope stabilization and soil conservation. As the runoff water is reduced, paving way for greater infiltration,
soil erosion and sedimentation of downstream areas are minimized. It has been observed that, grove soil is usually
rich in organic matter due to efficient decomposition of leaf litter, dead wood as well as other remnants. Water
seeping out of sacred groves into the surrounding cultivation areas is considered nutrient rich by village
communities. Yet well designed studies to substantiate such beliefs are very necessary.
Nutrient Cycling
Nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous are major soil nutrients which are operated through biogeochemcical cycles
to meet up the nutrient demands of the organisms. Litter is a vital connection between vegetation and soil for
nutrient dynamics. The decomposed plant litters release the nutrients in the soil which are either taken by the plant
roots or leached out. In old growth tropical forests, litter quantity and quality significantly vary from early
successional stages and plantations. Rajendraprasad et al. found the linear relationship between the species richness
and diversity and litter production in sacred groves. They also concluded that, grove system mimics the tropical
rain forest in litter production pattern (Rajendraprasad et al. 2000). It is the type of tree species, humidity,
temperature as well as soil microbial community which control the nutrient content of the litter and its release in
the soil (Khiewtam and Ramakrishnan 1993, Arunachalam et al. 1998).
A study from north-east India presents a healthy portrayal soil nutrient status of the grove represented the picture
of a healthy soil nutrient pool in the ecosystem in terms of higher moisture content, soil organic carbon, total
nitrogen, C/N ratio etc.(Arunachalam 1999, 2000). Dehydrogenase activity that facilitates decomposition of litter
and incorporation of nutrients into the soil, as observed in the study, was highest in the grove area, characterized by
rich litter cover. Similarly, the acidic pH (pH 4.5) of the grove area was attributed to the greater production of
organic acids from decomposition of diverse organic matters. Soil pH showed positive correlation with soil
metabolic activities i.e. soil respiration, dehydrogenase and urease activities. Regarding microbial biomass carbon
(MBC), the value was higher in the grove area in comparison to the grassland, jhum fallow and younger forest
regrowth. Relatively dense growth of plants and greater accumulation of litter and fine roots favoured the growth of
microbial population and accumulation of MBC in the site.
Factors like low soil temperature, high tree density, high basal area and undisturbed condition govern the fine root
mass generation in the grove. Fine roots are directly responsible for efficient recycling of soil nutrients, thus
preventing them from leaching out (Vishalakshi 1994). Rare though such works are, the role of the grove in
maintaining tropical ecosystem through leaf litter and root dynamics in Cherrapunji, Meghalaya showed that the
development and stability of a fragile rainforest ecosystem over a nutrient deficient calcareous landscape is
supported by efficient nutrient cycling through leaf litter and network of fine roots developed on the soil surface. In
contrast to the neighboring degraded grasslands and desertified areas, the results of rampant tree cutting, the sacred
grove presents a picture of the complex climax vegetation of rain forest, thanks to traditional beliefs restricting tree
cutting and biomass collection (Khiewtam and Ramakrishnan 1993)
Water conservation
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Most studies associate sacred groves with perennial water sources. Comparatively rich vegetation cover and thick
litter cover help to regulate the runoff water thus reducing the chances of flash floods (downstream) and release it
slowly during lean season. Studies in Meghalaya indicate that well preserved groves efficiently reduce the erosive
power of runoff water thus preventing soil erosion and nutrient wash out (Khiewtam and Ramakrishnan 1993).
Similarly, in Himalayan region, sacred groves located on steep and rugged slope towards ridge have a distinct role
to regulate water flow and sedimentation (Singh et al. 1996).
In Western Ghats, most of the sacred groves are associated with perennial streams which constitute important water
resources for the neighbouring communities throughout the year (Chandran and Hughes 1997). In Ratnagiri area of
Maharashtra, groves are the major sources of water for villagers in summer. Perennial stream of water in Ujgaon
sacred grove and traditional wells in Katavali and Vigravali sacred groves provide drinking water to the villagers
from March to May every year (Godbole 2004). The sacred groves of Parinche valley in Pune, Maharashtra are
present near water resources and are assumed to be responsible for water availability in lean season (Waghchaure et
al 2006). Perhaps the most significant contribution of sacred grove in water conservation could be witnessed in
Rajasthan, where water bodies associated with orans serve as lifeline for local inhabitants as well as livestocks.
Jharan sacred grove in Jhalawar ensures the water availability of the Jhalawar city and protects the catchment of the
stream from siltation (Pandey , www.p2pays.org/ref/40/39748.pdf). Similarly, Garva ji ki bani, a sacred grove in
Alwar
has
a
perennial
water
body
used
for
irrigation
around
the
year
(Singh,
www.globalgiving.com/pfil/1116/projdoc.doc). The Lum Shyllong-Nongkrim sacred groves in Meghalaya are the
source of as many as eight streams that supply water to Shillong, the capital of Meghalaya (Down to Earth, 2003).
The water retention capacity of the groves favours the occurrence of more sensitive, hygrophilous endemics.
Multi-layered canopies and richness of litter cover result in higher soil moisture conditions. If we look at the
distribution of endemic species in the Western Ghats, it could be seen that, the sacred groves of Central Western
Ghats form the northernmost limits for most of them. The Kathalekan of Siddapur taluk, in Uttara Kannada, a
sacred grove of pre-colonial past, is notable for the swampy forests sheltering a community of rare hygrophilos
species such as Calophyllum apetalum, Dipterocarpus indicus, Gymnacranthera canarica, , Hopea ponga,
Mastixia arborea, Myristica magnifica, Pinanga dicksonii, Syzygium travancoricum etc. From Kathalekan was also
recorded 35 species of amphibians -26 endemic to the Western Ghats, 11 of them in IUCN Red List- (Chandran et
al 2009, in press).
A study is being carried out to assess the role of sacred grove in water conservation, compared to a secondary forest
in the neighborhood, in the Uttara Kannada district of central Western Ghats in Karnataka. A comparative
assessment has been designed to find out the relationship between vegetation, soil and hydrology in a well
preserved sacred grove (dominated by Dipterocarpus indicus, a relic of the primary forest) and its downstream
areas in the Bangarmakki village of Uttara Kannada. For comparison we chose another watershed, its catchment
covered with secondary forests, in the nearby Sampegadde village. The preliminary results show that there is
longer period of water retention in the soil, after the rainy season, in Bangarmakki, compared to Sampegadde. In
the former, ground water level was higher in the downstream areas below the grove, where the major cultivation is
arecanut, pepper, betel leaf, banana, coconut etc. Throughout the dry season the farmers are able to irrigate their
gardens with water pumped from stream or wells. On the contrary, major land use downstream of the non-grove
forest in Sampegadde is rain-fed paddy cultivation. Summer brings in water scarcity here, even for domestic use,
and the people’s economic conditions are also lower than in Bangarmakki (Give figures.. if you think it is fine).
Carbon sequestration
Forests are major global sinks for carbon dioxide. Plants store atmospheric carbon in the form photosynthetic
products, standing biomass, leaf litter and also contribute to soil organic carbon. It has been stated that unmanaged
and old growth forests have better carbon sequestration capability than plantation and managed forests (Chen et al.
2005, Stoy et al. 2007). Sacred groves, often relics of ancient forests, can serve as good sinks for carbon because of
their rich biodiversity, tree density and leaf litter deposition. A study from Himachal Pradesh showed higher
percentage of soil carbon stock in comparison to the other forest ecosystems. Furthermore, well protected sacred
forest, because of its higher biomass, sequesters significantly more carbon compared to other forest ecosystems
(Singh et al. 1996). More studies are required in this direction to highlight the role of groves in carbon
sequestration, so that the governments may take up steps to protect and restore the sacred groves, in the context of
the planet threatened with climatic change.
Sacred grove and landscape heterogeneity
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Sacred grove is not an isolated system. By its presence amidst a mosaic of landscape elements such as utility
forests, agricultural fields, grazing lands, plantations, human settlements the groves enhance landscape
heterogeneity and biodiversity. Studies in Kodagu region of Karnataka showed that the sacred groves in
combination with the tree cover in coffee plantations play an important role in maintaining forest bird population.
They also provide diverse microclimatic conditions which nurture several distinct macrofungal species in
comparison to forest reserve and coffee plantations (Bhagwat et al 2005). Sacred grove fragments offer more intra
patch habitat diversity to different life forms such as epiphytes, shrubs and lianas thus increasing total pool of
regional species diversity (Page et al 2009).
Fragmentation of the groves often affects seed dispersal and regeneration of rare plants which ultimately causes
decline of plant population. The availability of pollinators and seed dispersers is adversely affected causing decline
in mutualistic relationship between trees and animals. Study from the Konkan region has shown that larger groves
have better recruitment potential (both seedling density and seedling survival) than the smaller ones with regard to
two tree species Antiaris toxicaria and Strychnos nux-vomica. However, it has also been indicated that apart from
grove size, habitat quality, connectivity and population of seed dispersers may have a role in plant population
dynamics (Punde, 2007).
On charting the course for future studies
Sacred groves belong to a decentralized and informal system of conservation with their roots deep in pre-history.
They are often fragments of the primeval forests that covered any region before human impacts began. Considering
the tremendous terrestrial ecosystem diversity of India, biodiversity documentation of the groves, especially
vegetation aspects, will continue to have its importance, despite the grove studies hitherto carried out having
mainly concentrated on biodiversity than on ecosystem functions and services. Apart from tangible benefits in
terms of medicinal plants and various non-timber forest products, economic valuations of other services are yet
undone. It is also necessary to understand the complex ecological interactions which sustain the rich biodiversity of
groves as well as their ecosystem services. Greater understanding of ecological functions and ecosystem services of
the groves will certainly enhance their importance at local and regional level conservation and management. Sacred
grove tradition has faded away from most of the world and is rapidly on the decline in India. By and large, the
governments and the public in general, especially the urban elites, consider this tradition as related to archaic
religion. An ongoing process of cultural syncretism along with rising demand for biomass against a dwindling
supply, have weakened this ancient practice of conservation. To update and harmonize their religious beliefs, to be
in tune with the ‘elite’ India, the votaries of sacred grove tradition, bulk of them living in the villages and hamlets
of the hills and mountains, where the groves persist to this day, are drifting away from the past. Moreover, most
sacred grove studies, stronger on cultural and floristic aspects, the latter mainly on higher plants, dwell upon
peripherally, if at all, on lower plants and invertebrates, and on a whole complex of associated ecological processes.
Unless a strong scientific basis for conservation of the groves is established soon this practice is destined to
diminish further, to the impoverishment of biodiversity and ecosystem services. The freshly emerging issues in
sacred grove studies that need greater focus are:
1) Diversity of lower plants and lower fauna: Much work is required to be done on microbes, algae, fungi, lichens,
bryophytes,
pteridophytes and invertebrates.
2) Ecosystem dynamics: Nutrient cycling and operation of food webs involving the grove and linked landscape
elements are required to be understood in a wider context and more intensively. The pollination and dispersal, seed
germination and survival and symbiotic relationships of rare plant species sheltered in the groves are to be
understood to facilitate their more effective conservation.
3) Fragmentation effect: Present day groves are mostly isolated pockets of vegetation and they continue to shrink
in area due to anthropogenic pressures. Large canopy gaps created by tree felling, in combination with shrinking
area upset the microclimatic conditions of the groves and promote hardier secondary species and invasive species
like Eupatorium and Lantana, at the cost of endemic and rare ones. With the taller trees turning vulnerable to wind
falls the mean canopy height is destined to decline and more of interior species are exposed to adverse
environmental conditions. A proper understanding of fragmentation effects and weed dynamics are necessary for
better management of sacred groves.
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5) Water conservation: The role of sacred grove in water conservation is well known from practical experience as
well as from documentary evidence. However, the basic scientific investigations to validate the hydrological
function are very necessary. Also necessary is how the present small pockets of vegetation, that the most groves
today are, can be utilized for local level watershed management system.
6) Temperature regulation: The role of sacred grove in temperature control has not been investigated
systematically. The cool shade and associated favorable moisture conditions are reasons for the association of rare
species with sacred groves. Even the surrounding area benefits from the presence of groves.
7) Fire control: Fire can destroy extensive tracts of forests during dry summers. In landscapes interspersed with
evergreen groves the latter checks the spread of fire, especially in the Western Ghats and the North-eastern states.
How best the system of sacred groves can be rejuvenated and harmonized with landscape management plans need
to be pursued more seriously to ensure forest protection.
8) Carbon sequestration: The sacred groves, due to their greater biomass accumulated per unit area as they are
relatively less disturbed systems in humanized landscapes, can be viewed as accumulators of carbon. Region-wise
studies on carbon sequestration potential of groves can create renewed interest in them. Participation of particularly
rural folks in restoration of groves and increase in their biomass and ecosystem functioning, through carefully
researched and region-specific action plans, under various national and international programs, can strengthen rural
level economies while also giving a new lease of life to the declining relic forests sheltering rare biota.
9) Ecosystem and environmental service quantification: The ecosystem and environmental services provided by
the sacred groves need to be quantified in relevant economic terms so that justifiable conservation measures could
be taken. Effective frameworks are required to evaluate the tangible and non-tangibles benefits obtained from
sacred groves. Tangible benefits (provisioning services) from sacred grove may be insignificant due to their present
diminished size and restriction on resource usage, but other services (regulating, supporting and cultural) can be
considered for this purpose.
10) Planning for interconnectedness of landscape elements: In highly human impacted landscapes with fractured
forests sacred groves are also on the decline. Exercises aiming at landscape redesigning by providing connectivity
between natural elements, with the sacred grove at the core can facilitate animal movements through microcorridors. The groves, acting as seed banks, can promote re-colonization of climax species in the degraded forests
around. Researchers have to make use of geographical information system (GIS) and remote sensing products for
redesigning rural landscapes, with groves as core areas.
Table 1. Rare, Endangered and Threatened (RET) and Endemic Plant Distribution in sacred groves-Table may not
be needed)
Groves
District, State
Region
Plant details
Reference
12 sacred groves
Maharashtra
Western Ghats
38 rare plants
Vartak, 1983
Khloo paiu ram
pyrthai, Urkhla,
and Khloo
langdoh
Jaintia hills
Indo-Burma
55 endemic
Jamir et al, 2003
Meghalaya
region
31 rare plants
102 sacred groves
Maharashtra
Western Ghats
2 (near threatened), 4
Upadhye, 2004
(vulnerable), 1
(endangered)
25 sacred groves
201 sacred groves
578 sacred groves
Kodagu, Karnataka
Western Ghat
47 endemic, 32 threatened
Bhagwat
plants
2005
et
al,
Kanyakumari,
Southern Western
41 endemic
Sukumaran et al,
Tamil Nadu
Ghat
103 rare and endangered
2008
Kannur and
Western Ghat
Rich presence of endemic
Jayaraman, 2004
Kasargod ) District,
plants
Kerala
450
451
Table 2. Studies on economically important plants from sacred grove – (Table may not be
452
needed)
Grove localities
State
Total no. of
Utility / Importance
Reference
Medicinal, food
Vartak, 1981
26
Medicinal
Vartak et al, 1987
136
Medicinal
Boraiah et al, 2003
Medicinal
Swamy et al, 2003
utility plant
species
Mangaon village,
Pune district
Groves in Western
Ghats
Maharashtra
Kodagu
Karnataka
Maharashtra and
Goa
Tamil Nadu
18 sacred groves in
Purulia district
102 groves in Pune
district
West Bengal
56
Medicinal
Bhakat, 2004
Maharashtra
84
Medicinal
Upadhye et al, 2004
22
Wild edible plants
24
Fodder plants
42
Medicinal plants
112
Other utility
120
Medicinal plants
25 sacred groves in
Kodagu
Karnataka
Konthoujam
Manipur
lairembi, Mhabali,
Bhagwat et al, 2005
Khumbongmayum et.
Al, 2005
Langol thongak
lairembi and
Heingang marjing
Swer and Mairang
Meghalaya
80
Medicinal
Laloo et al, 2005
Thal Ke Dhar
Uttarakhand
36
Medicinal, food, fodder,
Negi, 2005
firewood, agricultural
implements and others
Lalong and Raliang
(Jaintia hill)
Meghalaya
26
Wild fruit
16
Vegetables
45
Medicinal
Upadhaya et al, 2005
Garhwal
Uttarakhand
Medicinal
Anthwal et al, 2006
Tarkeshwar
Uttarakhand
Medicinal
Bisht, 2007
Virudhunagar
district
Guptamani,
Lohatikri and
Nayagram
(Midnapur district)
Tamil Nadu
50
Medicinal
Rajendran et al, 2007
West Bengal
30
Medicinal
Bhagat, 2008
201 sacred groves
Tamil Nadu
Dapoli tehsil
194
Medicinal
34
Timber
19
Non-timber products
Maharashtra
Sukumaran et al, 2008
Non-timber products
Ulman and Mokat,
(medicinal, edible, fodder,
2008
aromatic, veterinary, dye
yielding, tannin, fibre, gum,
oil, resin, spice)
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461
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Table 3. Studies on ecological services provided by sacred groves –
Objective
Location of the Grove
Nutrient cycling through litter fall
Reference
Cherrapunji, Meghalaya
Khiewtam and Ramakrishnan, 1993
Nelliampathy, Western Ghat, Kerala
Chandrashekara and RamaKrishnan,
, role of surface fine roots in
nutrient cycling
Influence of gaps on vegetation
structure, biomass, productivity
1994
and nutrient cycling
Fine root dynamics
Eco-cultural
Vishalakshi 1994
analysis
Chakkinal watershed, Himachal Pradesh
Singh et al. 1996
Litterfall and nutrient dynamics
Upper Shillong, Meghalaya
Arunachalam et al. 1998
Soil
Upper Shillong, Meghalaya
Arunachalam et al. 1999
ecosystem,
(carbon
of
the
stock
estimation is a part of it)
influence
on
microbial
populations, activity and biomass
Influence of gap size and soil on
Mawphlang, Shillong, Meghalaya
Arunachalam and Arunachalam 2000
Five sacred groves in Kerala
Rajendraprasad et al. 2000
South-western Kodagu, Karnataka
Bhagwat et al 2005
Effect of fragmentation
Konkan region, Maharashtra
Punde, 2007
Fragmentation effect on plant
Kodagu region, Karnataka
Page et al 2009
microbial biomass
Vegetation characterization and
litter dynamcs
Landscape
approach
to
biodiversity conservation
species diversity
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