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Competence vs. Performance (two important facts)
1.
2.
The linguistic competence of the native user can be reflected in the GRAMMAR of the language
There is a difference between what one knows about language and how he/she uses his/her
native language in actual behaviour
Prescriptive rules:
1.
2.
Use x when….
Don’t use x when…
3.
Never say….
Those prescribe the standard of usage. They characterise a formal variety of language. They make a value
judgement about the correctness of an utterance.
Descriptive rules(two important facts)
1.
Those do not correspond to the prescriptive rules we learned at school.
2.
They vary from style to style, from dialect to dialect.
What is language?- definition no 1
-
And arbitrary system of signs, which is manifested in verbal behaviour and which is used by the
society for communication
Definition no 2
-
Language is the method of communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of words
in a structured and conventional way.
The creativity of language
-
Human language must be creative: allowing novelty and innovations is response to new thoughts,
experiences, and situation
Linguistic knowledge
o
Knowledge of the Sound System:
Knowing what sounds are in that language and what are not.
o
Knowledge of Words:
Knowing the sound of units that are related to specific meaning
-
Knowledge of Sentences:
Competence/performance-
Linguistic competence What you know about language?
Linguistic performance How you use this knowledge is actual speech production and competention.
Prescriptive grammar
-
1762; Bishop Robert Lowth; A Short Introduction to English Grammar with ritical Notes.
o
I don’t have none -> I don’t have any
o
o
-
You was wrong -> You were wrong
Mathilda I fatter than me -> Mathilda I fatter than I am
Many of those rules were based on Latin grammar. Latin was assumed as the most respected
scientific language in the 15th – 17th centuries.
Components of a Grammar:
o
Phonetics
The articulation and perception of speech sounds
o
Phonology
The patterning of speech sound
-
Morphology
o
Word formation
-
o
Sentence formation
-
o
Syntax
Semantics
Interpretation of words and sentences
Language and communication
Communication – definition
-
The sending and receiving of information takes place in a special arrangement know as cybernetic
arrangement
-
-
the transfer of information from the sender to the receiver(addressee)
In order to the message to be decoded both the sender and the addressee must use the same
code(e.g. natural language)
In natural language interaction the sender’s intended message may not always be identified as such
by the addressee. The interpretation of an utterance may depend on:
o
The context or the situation
o
The knowledge of the world
The sentence It’s quite cold in here may be uttered with different intentions, for instance:
1.
A simple informational statement
2.
3.
A request to close the window
A suggestion to leave the place or stay in
Linguistic sign
Ferdinand de Saussure:
-
The father of modern linguistic
Described a linguistic sign as an entity of two elements:
o
Signified
o
Signifying
The signified stands for the NOTION or CONCEPT and can by identify with the meaning of the sign.
Linguistic sign
‘man’ and ‘człowiek’ convey the same meaning – we learn the signified part of the sign(notion). The
sigh represent a UNITY between for and meaning
The sounds(pronunciation) and the meaning of a word are inseparable.
‘coach’ and ‘sofa’ are two words because their identical meaning are represented by two different
phonological forms. F. de Saussure discussed th arbitrary union between the sounds(form) and meaning
(concept) of the linguistic sign or words.
Signs used in communication are called signals.
Language universals
Definition
·
A language patter or phenomenon which occurs in all languages. The major aim of linguistic theory
is to discover the nature of Universal Grammar whose pronciples characterise all human languages
Some facts about language:
1.
2.
Whenever humans exist, languages exist
All languages are equally complex and equally capable of expressing any idea in the universe. The
vocabulary of an language can be expanded to include new words for new concept
3.
4.
5.
All languages change through time
Similar grammatical categories are found in all languages
There are semantic universals, such as ‘male’, ‘female’, ‘animate’, ‘inanimate’, ‘human’ found in
every language in the world.
Communicative functions of language
Is used to perform different COMMUNICATIVE FUNCTIONS. The following have been proposed in linguistic
literature.
Referential function – language used to point to objects and events in the actual world context or in the
universe determined by participants of a verbal interaction
Emotive function – language used to describe or appeal to emotions
Conative function – language used to achieve some practical effects, as when the speaker wants to
persuade the addressee to do something.
Phatic function – language used to start and maintain contact between the speaker and the addressee; to
keep open the channel of communication.
Metalinguistic language – language used to describe a language
Poetic function(aesthetic function) – language used to attract the addressee’s attention mainly by the
exploitation of the formal properties of the message, not only in priority
Performative function – language use to perform certain, frequently ritualised acts
Properties of human language
·
·
Unique system of education
Informative signals: signals which you have not intentionally sent = body language
·
Communicative signals: signals you use intentionally to communicate
Displacement
·
Human language can refer to past and future time and to other locations
·
Bee language: dance routine to communicate the location of nectar
Arbitrariness:
·
no natural connection between linguistic form and its meaning
Productivity/creativity
·
a child learning a language is active in forming and producing utterance it has never heard before
·
open endedness – a language user can manipulate his linguistic resources
Cultural transmission
·
we acquire language with other speakers – not from parental genes
·
language is passed on from one generation to the next
Discreteness
·
the ound is used in a language are meaningfully distinct
e.g.: pack – back; pin-bin·
difference in pronunciation between /p/ and /b/ sound leads to a
difference in meaning
Duality
·
·
language is organised on two levels:
physical level at which we can produce individual sounds e.g. n, I, b
Semanticity:
·
language carries meaning
Animal communication
·
transmission of information from one animal to another by means of sound, visible sign or
behaviour, taste or odour, electrical impulse, touch, or combination of these
Facts about animal communication:
·
·
some animals communication uses sound
visual communication usually indicates an animal’s identity(sex, age, etc.) or other information
through specific characteristics or behaviour
The pooh-pooh theory /pu’pu/
Sounds of language came from natural cries of emotion, such as pain anger and joy.
“yo-heave-ho theory”
It concerns people involved in physical effort. A group of early humans might have developed a set of
grunts, groans, and swears. Apes and other primates have grunts and social calls, but they do not seem to
have developed the capacity of speech.
The oral gesture source
Involves the link between physical gesture and orally produced sounds.
Brain lateralization.
Phoneme
-
a class of speech sounds that are identified by native speakers as the same sound is called
phoneme
-
the different phonetic realizations of a phoneme are called allophones
Phonology
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