Download Click www.ondix.com to visit our student-to

Click www.ondix.com to visit our student-to-student file sharing network.
Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and scientist, who shared with Plato the distinction of
being the most famous of ancient philosophers. Aristotle was born at Stagira, in
Macedonia, the son of a physician to the royal court. At the age of 17, he went to Athens
to study at Plato's Academy. He remained there for about 20 years, as a student and then
as a teacher. When Plato died in 347 bc , Aristotle moved to Assos, a city in Asia Minor,
where a friend of his, Hermias (d. 345 bc ), was ruler. There he counseled Hermias and
married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythias. After Hermias was captured and
executed by the Persians, Aristotle went to Pella, the Macedonian capital, where he
became the tutor of the king's young son Alexander, later known as Alexander the Great.
In 335, when Alexander became king, Aristotle returned to Athens and established his
own school, the Lyceum. Because much of the discussion in his school took place while
teachers and students were walking about the Lyceum grounds, Aristotle's school came to
be known as the Peripatetic ('walking' or 'strolling') school. Upon the death of Alexander
in 323 bc , strong anti-Macedonian feeling developed in Athens, and Aristotle retired to a
family estate in Euboea. He died there the following year.
His works on natural science include Physics, which gives a vast amount of information
on astronomy, meteorology, plants, and animals. His writings on the nature, scope, and
properties of being, which Aristotle called First Philosophy ( Prote philosophia ), were
given the title Metaphysics in the first published edition of his works (c. 60 bc ), because
in that edition they followed Physics. His treatment of the Prime Mover, or first cause, as
pure intellect, perfect in unity, immutable, and, as he said, 'the thought of thought,' is
given in the Metaphysics. To his son Nicomachus he dedicated his work on ethics, called
the Nicomachean Ethics. Other essential works include his Rhetoric, his Poetics (which
survives in incomplete form), and his Politics (also incomplete). Some of the principal
aspects of Aristotle's thought can be seen in the following summary of his doctrines, or
theories. Physics, or natural philosophy.
In astronomy, Aristotle proposed a finite, spherical universe, with the earth at its center.
The central region is made up of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. In Aristotle's
physics, each of these four elements has a proper place, determined by its relative
heaviness, its 'specific gravity.' Each moves naturally in a straight line-earth down, fire
up-toward its proper place, where it will be at rest. Thus, terrestrial motion is always
linear and always comes to a halt. The heavens, however, move naturally and endlessly in
a complex circular motion. The heavens, therefore, must be made of a fifth, and different
element, which he called aither. A superior element, aither is incapable of any change
other than change of place in a circular movement. Aristotle's theory that linear motion
always takes place through a resisting medium is in fact valid for all observable terrestrial
motions. Aristotle also held that heavier bodies of a given material fall faster than lighter
ones when their shapes are the same; this mistaken view was accepted as fact until
Galileo proved otherwise.
In his metaphysics, Aristotle argued for the existence of a divine being, described as the
Prime Mover, who is responsible for the unity and purposefulness of nature. God is
perfect and therefore the aspiration of all things in the world, because all things desire to
share perfection. Other movers exist as well-the intelligent movers of the planets and
stars (Aristotle suggested that the number of these is 'either 55 or 47'). The Prime Mover,
or God, described by Aristotle is not very suitable for religious purposes, as many later
philosophers and theologians have observed. Aristotle limited his 'theology,' however, to
what he believed science requires and can establish.
Many, many years after Aristotle died, a Polish astronomer named Nicolaus Copernicus,
formulated his own theories about best known for his astronomical theory that the sun is
at rest near the center of the universe, and that the earth, spinning on its axis once daily,
revolves annually around the sun. This is called the heliocentric, or sun-centered, system.
In 1500 Copernicus lectured on astronomy in Rome. The following year he gained
permission to study medicine at Padua, the university where Galileo taught nearly a
century later. It was not unusual at the time to study a subject at one university and then
to receive a degree from another-often less expensive-institution. And so Copernicus,
without completing his medical studies, received a doctorate in canon law from Ferrara in
1503 and then returned to Poland to take up his administrative duties. After moving to
Frauenburg in 1512, Copernicus took part in the Fifth Lateran Council's commission on
calendar reform (1515); wrote a treatise on money (1517); and began his major work, De
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), which
was finished by 1530 but first published by a Lutheran printer in Nuremberg, Germany,
just before Copernicus's death on May 24, 1543. The cosmology that was eventually
replaced by Copernican theory postulated a geocentric universe in which the earth was
stationary and motionless at the center of several concentric, rotating spheres. These
spheres bore (in order from the earth outward) the following celestial bodies: the moon,
Mercury, Venus, the sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and, finally, the finite outermost sphere
bearing the so-called fixed stars. (This last sphere was said to wobble slowly, thereby
producing the precession of the equinoxes.)One phenomenon had posed a particular
problem for cosmologists and natural philosophers since ancient times: the apparent
retrograde, or backward, motion of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn. From time to time the daily
motion of these planets through the sky appears to halt and then to proceed in the
opposite direction. In an attempt to account for this retrograde motion, medieval
cosmology stated that each planet revolved on the edge of a circle called the epicycle, and
the center of each epicycle revolved around the earth on a path called the deferent. The
major premises of Copernicus's theory are that the earth rotates daily on its axis and
revolves yearly around the sun. He argued, furthermore, that the planets also circle the
sun, and that the earth precesses on its axis (wobbles like a top) as it rotates. The
Copernican theory retained many features of the cosmology it replaced, including the
solid, planet-bearing spheres, and the finite outermost sphere bearing the fixed stars. On
the other hand, Copernicus's heliocentric theories of planetary motion had the advantage
of accounting for the apparent daily and yearly motion of the sun and stars, and it neatly
explained the apparent retrograde motion of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, and why Mercury
and Venus never move more than a certain distance from the sun. Copernicus's theory
also stated that the sphere of the fixed stars was stationary.
Another important feature of Copernican theory is that it allowed a new ordering of the
planets according to their periods of revolution. In Copernicus's universe, unlike
Ptolemy's, the greater the radius of a planet's orbit, the greater the time the planet takes to
make one circuit around the sun. But the price of accepting the concept of a moving earth
was too high for most 16th-century readers who understood Copernicus's claims. Instead,
parts of his theory were adopted, while the radical core was ignored or rejected. There
were but ten Copernicans between 1543 and 1600. Most worked outside the universities
in princely, royal, or imperial courts; the most famous were Galileo and the German
astronomer Johannes Kepler. These men often differed in their reasons for supporting the
Copernican system. In 1588 an important middle position was developed by the Danish
astronomer Tycho Brahe in which the earth remained at rest and all the planets revolved
around the sun as it revolved around the earth.
After the suppression of Copernican theory occasioned by the ecclesiastical trial of
Galileo in 1633, some Jesuit philosophers remained secret followers of Copernicus.
Many others adopted the geocentric-heliocentric system of Brahe. By the late 17th
century and the rise of the system of celestial mechanics propounded by the English
natural philosopher Sir Isaac Newton, most major thinkers in England, France, the
Netherlands, and Denmark were Copernicans. Natural philosophers in the other European
countries, however, held strong anti-Copernican views for at least another century.
R.S.W.
Aristotle and Copernicus held differing views on how the planets moved but that
was because they lived in vastly different times. Without Aristotle, Copernicus may never
had something to disprove. Copernicus' fight for what he believed in, truly helped
mankind realize certain truths. It is these people who really make the world go around
and will carry us through to the next millenium.
Keywords:
aristotle greek philosopher scientist shared with plato distinction being most famous
ancient philosophers aristotle born stagira macedonia physician royal court went athens
study plato academy remained there about years student then teacher when plato died
aristotle moved assos city asia minor where friend hermias ruler there counseled hermias
married niece adopted daughter pythias after hermias captured executed persians went
pella macedonian capital where became tutor king young alexander later known
alexander great when alexander became king returned athens established school lyceum
because much discussion school took place while teachers students were walking about
lyceum grounds school came known peripatetic walking strolling upon death strong anti
macedonian feeling developed athens retired family estate euboea died there following
year works natural science include physics which gives vast amount information
astronomy meteorology plants animals writings nature scope properties being which
called first philosophy prote philosophia were given title metaphysics first published
edition works because that edition they followed physics treatment prime mover first
cause pure intellect perfect unity immutable said thought thought given metaphysics
nicomachus dedicated work ethics called nicomachean ethics other essential works
include rhetoric poetics which survives incomplete form politics also incomplete some
principal aspects thought seen following summary doctrines theories physics natural
philosophy astronomy proposed finite spherical universe with earth center central region
made four elements earth fire water each these four elements proper place determined
relative heaviness specific gravity each moves naturally straight line earth down fire
toward proper place where will rest thus terrestrial motion always linear always comes
halt heavens however move naturally endlessly complex circular motion heavens
therefore must made fifth different element called aither superior element aither
incapable change other than change circular movement theory that linear motion always
takes through resisting medium fact valid observable terrestrial motions also held that
heavier bodies given material fall faster than lighter ones when their shapes same this
mistaken view accepted fact until galileo proved otherwise metaphysics argued existence
divine being described prime mover responsible unity purposefulness nature perfect
therefore aspiration things world because things desire share perfection other movers
exist well intelligent movers planets stars suggested number these either prime mover
described very suitable religious purposes many later philosophers theologians have
observed limited theology however what believed science requires establish many many
years after died polish astronomer named nicolaus copernicus formulated theories about
best known astronomical theory rest near center universe spinning axis once daily
revolves annually around this heliocentric centered system copernicus lectured astronomy
rome following year gained permission study medicine padua university galileo taught
nearly century later unusual time study subject university then receive degree from
another often less expensive institution copernicus without completing medical studies
received doctorate canon from ferrara then returned poland take administrative duties
after moving frauenburg took part fifth lateran council commission calendar reform wrote
treatise money began major work revolutionibus orbium coelestium revolutions celestial
spheres finished published lutheran printer nuremberg germany just before death
cosmology eventually replaced copernican theory postulated geocentric universe
stationary motionless center several concentric rotating spheres these spheres bore order
from outward celestial bodies moon mercury venus mars jupiter saturn finally finite
outermost sphere bearing fixed stars this last sphere said wobble slowly thereby
producing precession equinoxes phenomenon posed particular problem cosmologists
natural philosophers since ancient times apparent retrograde backward mars jupiter saturn
time time daily planets through appears halt proceed opposite direction attempt account
retrograde medieval cosmology stated each planet revolved edge circle epicycle epicycle
revolved around path deferent major premises rotates daily axis revolves yearly around
argued furthermore planets also circle precesses axis wobbles like rotates copernican
retained features cosmology replaced including solid planet bearing finite outermost
sphere bearing fixed stars hand heliocentric theories planetary advantage accounting
apparent yearly neatly explained apparent retrograde mars jupiter saturn mercury venus
never move more than certain distance stated fixed stationary another important feature
copernican allowed ordering according their periods revolution unlike ptolemy greater
radius planet orbit greater takes make circuit price accepting concept moving high most
century readers understood claims instead parts were adopted while radical core ignored
rejected copernicans between most worked outside universities princely royal imperial
courts famous galileo german astronomer johannes kepler often differed their reasons
supporting system important middle position developed danish astronomer tycho brahe
remained rest revolved suppression occasioned ecclesiastical trial some jesuit remained
secret followers others adopted geocentric heliocentric system brahe late century rise
celestial mechanics propounded english philosopher isaac newton major thinkers england
france netherlands denmark copernicans european countries however held strong anti
views least another held differing views moved they lived vastly different times without
never something disprove fight what believed truly helped mankind realize certain truths
people really make world will carry through next millenium
Keywords General:
Essay, essays, termpaper, term paper, termpapers, term papers, book reports, study,
college, thesis, dessertation, test answers, free research, book research, study help,
download essay, download term papers