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1.3.3a DC Electrical methods All the EM methods are described
1.3.3a DC Electrical methods All the EM methods are described

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... conductor to the other, and one end builds-up an excess of electrons and the other a deficiency of electrons. This means that there is a potential difference or emf between the ends. • Eventually, the emf becomes large enough to balance the magnetic force and thus stop electrons from moving. e v B = ...
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... electrons, higher order EM transitions can occur. They are called E2, E3,.. M1, M2.., so on, or electric multipole and magnetic multipole transitions. By going beyond the first-order perturbation theory, one can also have multi-photon transitions. For example, the 1s-2s transition in atomic hydrogen ...
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Superconductivity



Superconductivity is a phenomenon of exactly zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields occurring in certain materials when cooled below a characteristic critical temperature. It was discovered by Dutch physicist Heike Kamerlingh Onnes on April 8, 1911 in Leiden. Like ferromagnetism and atomic spectral lines, superconductivity is a quantum mechanical phenomenon. It is characterized by the Meissner effect, the complete ejection of magnetic field lines from the interior of the superconductor as it transitions into the superconducting state. The occurrence of the Meissner effect indicates that superconductivity cannot be understood simply as the idealization of perfect conductivity in classical physics.The electrical resistivity of a metallic conductor decreases gradually as temperature is lowered. In ordinary conductors, such as copper or silver, this decrease is limited by impurities and other defects. Even near absolute zero, a real sample of a normal conductor shows some resistance. In a superconductor, the resistance drops abruptly to zero when the material is cooled below its critical temperature. An electric current flowing through a loop of superconducting wire can persist indefinitely with no power source.In 1986, it was discovered that some cuprate-perovskite ceramic materials have a critical temperature above 90 K (−183 °C). Such a high transition temperature is theoretically impossible for a conventional superconductor, leading the materials to be termed high-temperature superconductors. Liquid nitrogen boils at 77 K, and superconduction at higher temperatures than this facilitates many experiments and applications that are less practical at lower temperatures.
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