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... 6. Oxidation of succinyl-CoA produces succinate and one GTP that is converted to ATP. 7. Oxidation of succinate by FAD produces reduced FADH2 and fumarate. 8. Fumarate is converted into malate. 9. Oxidation of malate by NAD+ produces reduced NADH and oxaloacetate. Two molecules of acetyl-CoA from th ...
... 6. Oxidation of succinyl-CoA produces succinate and one GTP that is converted to ATP. 7. Oxidation of succinate by FAD produces reduced FADH2 and fumarate. 8. Fumarate is converted into malate. 9. Oxidation of malate by NAD+ produces reduced NADH and oxaloacetate. Two molecules of acetyl-CoA from th ...
Cyclooxygenase mechanisms Lawrence J Marnett
... which reduces fatty acid hydroperoxides [33–35]. Once the Tyr385 radical is generated, each enzyme molecule catalyzes several hundred cycles of arachidonic acid oxygenation. Although the tyrosyl radical is reduced to tyrosine when it oxidizes arachidonic acid, the radical is regenerated in the last ...
... which reduces fatty acid hydroperoxides [33–35]. Once the Tyr385 radical is generated, each enzyme molecule catalyzes several hundred cycles of arachidonic acid oxygenation. Although the tyrosyl radical is reduced to tyrosine when it oxidizes arachidonic acid, the radical is regenerated in the last ...
tRNA aminoacylation by arginyltRNA synthetase: induced
... linking the appropriate amino acid to the 3¢ end of the correct tRNA. In most organisms, there are 20 distinct aaRSs, each one of them being responsible for aminoacylating its cognate tRNA(s) with a unique amino acid in a two-step catalytic reaction. The ®rst step, which requires ATP and Mg2+ ions, ...
... linking the appropriate amino acid to the 3¢ end of the correct tRNA. In most organisms, there are 20 distinct aaRSs, each one of them being responsible for aminoacylating its cognate tRNA(s) with a unique amino acid in a two-step catalytic reaction. The ®rst step, which requires ATP and Mg2+ ions, ...
Cloning, Functional Characterization and Site
... (Hamberger et al., 2007; De Azevedo Souza et al., 2008). 4CLlike genes belong to adenylate-forming enzymes, a large family of proteins in plants, and they show high similarity to true 4CL genes with a conserved AMP binding domain (Box I) and Box II domain (GEICIRG). Different from true 4CLs, 4CL-lik ...
... (Hamberger et al., 2007; De Azevedo Souza et al., 2008). 4CLlike genes belong to adenylate-forming enzymes, a large family of proteins in plants, and they show high similarity to true 4CL genes with a conserved AMP binding domain (Box I) and Box II domain (GEICIRG). Different from true 4CLs, 4CL-lik ...
Examination test of Proteins The repeating units of proteins are
... a. Not stored in the body b. Stored in bone marrow c. * Stored in liver d. Stored in RE cells 50. Vitamin E reduces the requirement of a. Iron b. Zinc c. * Selenium d. Magnesium 51. 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol promotes absorption of: a. * Ca b. Cu c. Zn d. Na 52. A poor source of Vitamin D is a. E ...
... a. Not stored in the body b. Stored in bone marrow c. * Stored in liver d. Stored in RE cells 50. Vitamin E reduces the requirement of a. Iron b. Zinc c. * Selenium d. Magnesium 51. 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol promotes absorption of: a. * Ca b. Cu c. Zn d. Na 52. A poor source of Vitamin D is a. E ...
Ch14
... radioactive and it is rather easy to measure these as they become transformed by metabolism. The beauty of it is that enzymes react with radioactive atoms as if they were the normal atoms (which they are in their electron clouds), it is just that the radioactive atoms of C, N, H, S, P have an extra ...
... radioactive and it is rather easy to measure these as they become transformed by metabolism. The beauty of it is that enzymes react with radioactive atoms as if they were the normal atoms (which they are in their electron clouds), it is just that the radioactive atoms of C, N, H, S, P have an extra ...
Proteins in the Diet - Nutrition and Food Technology-just
... Definition • Protein from the Greek proteois, meaning primary. • They play key roles in constructing and maintaining living cells (Cell, Hormones and Enzymes). • Our genes code for proteins. • Proteins are polymers of amino acids. • Ribosome (Synthesis of Proteins). ...
... Definition • Protein from the Greek proteois, meaning primary. • They play key roles in constructing and maintaining living cells (Cell, Hormones and Enzymes). • Our genes code for proteins. • Proteins are polymers of amino acids. • Ribosome (Synthesis of Proteins). ...
Reaction of glycolysis
... NADH generated in step 6 can enter the mitochondrial electron transport chain to complete oxidation – As each NADH provides 3ATPs, this reaction provides 3 x 2 = 6 ATPs – The net gain of energy from glycolysis pathways is 8 ATPs ...
... NADH generated in step 6 can enter the mitochondrial electron transport chain to complete oxidation – As each NADH provides 3ATPs, this reaction provides 3 x 2 = 6 ATPs – The net gain of energy from glycolysis pathways is 8 ATPs ...
ENERGY-PRODUCING ABILITY OF BACTERIA
... Following the absorption of light, the electrons stored in the H2O molecules are released and transported to nictotinamide dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+). The reduction of the latter generates NADPH, a critical reducing factor while the movement of the e-, a process facilitated by the electron carri ...
... Following the absorption of light, the electrons stored in the H2O molecules are released and transported to nictotinamide dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+). The reduction of the latter generates NADPH, a critical reducing factor while the movement of the e-, a process facilitated by the electron carri ...
From The Building Blocks to Life
... Contemporary life on Earth stores genetic information in the sequences of DNA and RNA and it evolves through changes in these sequences. Protein enzymes catalyze most of the chemical reactions essential for life. The biological basic functions of information storage and catalysis are fulfilled by bi ...
... Contemporary life on Earth stores genetic information in the sequences of DNA and RNA and it evolves through changes in these sequences. Protein enzymes catalyze most of the chemical reactions essential for life. The biological basic functions of information storage and catalysis are fulfilled by bi ...
Metabolism - University of Lethbridge
... Classes of Biochemical Reactions 4) Reaction making and breaking C-C bonds: These reactions form the basis of both degradative and biosynthetic metabolism. Reactions that make C-C bonds involve the addition of a nucleophilic carbanion to an electrophilic C atom (breaking C-C bonds is simply the rev ...
... Classes of Biochemical Reactions 4) Reaction making and breaking C-C bonds: These reactions form the basis of both degradative and biosynthetic metabolism. Reactions that make C-C bonds involve the addition of a nucleophilic carbanion to an electrophilic C atom (breaking C-C bonds is simply the rev ...
Lecture 26
... Oxidize an acetyl group to 2 CO2 molecules and generates 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP. Citrate synthase: catalyzes the condensation of acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate to yield citrate. Aconitase: isomerizes citrate to the easily oxidized isocitrate. Isocitrate dehydrogenase: oxidizes isocitrate to the -k ...
... Oxidize an acetyl group to 2 CO2 molecules and generates 3 NADH, 1 FADH2, and 1 GTP. Citrate synthase: catalyzes the condensation of acetyl-CoA and oxaloacetate to yield citrate. Aconitase: isomerizes citrate to the easily oxidized isocitrate. Isocitrate dehydrogenase: oxidizes isocitrate to the -k ...
Browning reaction
... consisting of oxidation of phenols to quinones induced by PPO or PO (Montero et al., 2001). PO is responsible for a discoloration in crustacean species such as lobster, shrimp and crab. The postmortem dark discoloration in crustaceans, called melanosis or blackspot, connotes spoilage (Kim et al., 20 ...
... consisting of oxidation of phenols to quinones induced by PPO or PO (Montero et al., 2001). PO is responsible for a discoloration in crustacean species such as lobster, shrimp and crab. The postmortem dark discoloration in crustaceans, called melanosis or blackspot, connotes spoilage (Kim et al., 20 ...
Chem 309 Video Tutorial Schedule for Fall 2013
... Video/Activity grading rubric. Exam 3 is based on the following course materials. It will be helpful to keep your course materials organized using this TOC. _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ ...
... Video/Activity grading rubric. Exam 3 is based on the following course materials. It will be helpful to keep your course materials organized using this TOC. _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ ...
THE EVOLUTION OF ACETYL-CoA SYNTHASE 1
... other enzymes use the other 6e− to reduce another CO2 to the methyl group of CH3 -THF. Finally, ACS catalyzes the reaction of CO, coenzyme A, and CH3 -THF, forming acetyl-CoA. Some acetyl-CoA is hydrolzyed to acetate, and free energy released in the process is used to drive ATP synthesis. The remain ...
... other enzymes use the other 6e− to reduce another CO2 to the methyl group of CH3 -THF. Finally, ACS catalyzes the reaction of CO, coenzyme A, and CH3 -THF, forming acetyl-CoA. Some acetyl-CoA is hydrolzyed to acetate, and free energy released in the process is used to drive ATP synthesis. The remain ...
Full-Text PDF
... results were interpreted in the context of the docking results. The results suggest that an extended surface along the active site cleft is involved in binding of a protein substrate. Furthermore, it appears that a number of hydrophobic and aromatic residues are important for interacting with Z-QG, ...
... results were interpreted in the context of the docking results. The results suggest that an extended surface along the active site cleft is involved in binding of a protein substrate. Furthermore, it appears that a number of hydrophobic and aromatic residues are important for interacting with Z-QG, ...
Bis2A 07.1 Glycolysis
... You are about to begin a series of modules that focus on the oxidation of carbon compounds. This process serves two distinct purposes for any cell. The rst is the generation of ...
... You are about to begin a series of modules that focus on the oxidation of carbon compounds. This process serves two distinct purposes for any cell. The rst is the generation of ...
Microbial Metabolism
... energy; and a small portion of the population has high energy. If only the high-energy AB molecules are able to react and be converted to A and B molecules, then only relatively few molecules at any one time possess enough energy to react in a collision. The collision energy required for a chemical ...
... energy; and a small portion of the population has high energy. If only the high-energy AB molecules are able to react and be converted to A and B molecules, then only relatively few molecules at any one time possess enough energy to react in a collision. The collision energy required for a chemical ...
Ribozyme catalysis: not different, just worse
... substantially shifted in the ground state47, and its precise catalytic role remains elusive. More recently, structures of the precursor form of the HDV ribozyme showed that a hydrated magnesium ion binds the active site in the precleaved state, coordinated directly or through a water molecule to the ...
... substantially shifted in the ground state47, and its precise catalytic role remains elusive. More recently, structures of the precursor form of the HDV ribozyme showed that a hydrated magnesium ion binds the active site in the precleaved state, coordinated directly or through a water molecule to the ...
Ubiquitin ligases and beyond EDITORIAL Open Access Ivan Dikic
... ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, to which the ubiquitin is transferred from the E1; and E3 is the ubiquitin ligase, which binds the target protein and directly or indirectly catalyzes its ligation to the ubiquitin. The E3 therefore determines the substrate specificity of ubiquitination, and the diversi ...
... ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, to which the ubiquitin is transferred from the E1; and E3 is the ubiquitin ligase, which binds the target protein and directly or indirectly catalyzes its ligation to the ubiquitin. The E3 therefore determines the substrate specificity of ubiquitination, and the diversi ...
Enzyme

Enzymes /ˈɛnzaɪmz/ are macromolecular biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate, or catalyze, chemical reactions. The molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates and the enzyme converts these into different molecules, called products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life. The set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell. The study of enzymes is called enzymology.Enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types. Most enzymes are proteins, although a few are catalytic RNA molecules. Enzymes' specificity comes from their unique three-dimensional structures.Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the rate of a reaction by lowering its activation energy. Some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster. An extreme example is orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase, which allows a reaction that would otherwise take millions of years to occur in milliseconds. Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, nor do they alter the equilibrium of a reaction. Enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules: inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, and activators are molecules that increase activity. Many drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors. An enzyme's activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH.Some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics. Some household products use enzymes to speed up chemical reactions: enzymes in biological washing powders break down protein, starch or fat stains on clothes, and enzymes in meat tenderizer break down proteins into smaller molecules, making the meat easier to chew.