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Multiplexing and Sampling Theory
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... is a frequency spectrum display of the sampled data. It shows how much energy at a given frequency is in a particular signal. For the purpose of illustration, assume that the example processes only frequencies under 2 kHz. Ideally, a Fourier transform of a 500 Hz square wave contains one peak at 500 ...
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... b) At the load end the voltage stability , i,e the voltage of load end should be maintained constant. The fulfillment of this condition often results in limitation of transmitted power to level much below the thermal capacity of such lines and perhaps even below the available capacity. With ever inc ...
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... connected in parallel with the line through a coupling inductor. Its main power circuit consists of a three phase three-leg current controlled voltage source inverter with a DC link capacitor. An active power filter operates by generating a compensating current with 180 degree phase opposition and i ...
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Pulse-width modulation



Pulse-width modulation (PWM), or pulse-duration modulation (PDM), is a modulation technique used to encode a message into a pulsing signal. Although this modulation technique can be used to encode information for transmission, its main use is to allow the control of the power supplied to electrical devices, especially to inertial loads such as motors. In addition, PWM is one of the two principal algorithms used in photovoltaic solar battery chargers, the other being MPPT.The average value of voltage (and current) fed to the load is controlled by turning the switch between supply and load on and off at a fast rate. The longer the switch is on compared to the off periods, the higher the total power supplied to the load.The PWM switching frequency has to be much higher than what would affect the load (the device that uses the power), which is to say that the resultant waveform perceived by the load must be as smooth as possible. Typically switching has to be done several times a minute in an electric stove, 120 Hz in a lamp dimmer, from few kilohertz (kHz) to tens of kHz for a motor drive and well into the tens or hundreds of kHz in audio amplifiers and computer power supplies.The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of time; a low duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the time. Duty cycle is expressed in percent, 100% being fully on.The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on and power is being transferred to the load, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero. PWM also works well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle.PWM has also been used in certain communication systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information over a communications channel.
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