• Study Resource
  • Explore
    • Arts & Humanities
    • Business
    • Engineering & Technology
    • Foreign Language
    • History
    • Math
    • Science
    • Social Science

    Top subcategories

    • Advanced Math
    • Algebra
    • Basic Math
    • Calculus
    • Geometry
    • Linear Algebra
    • Pre-Algebra
    • Pre-Calculus
    • Statistics And Probability
    • Trigonometry
    • other →

    Top subcategories

    • Astronomy
    • Astrophysics
    • Biology
    • Chemistry
    • Earth Science
    • Environmental Science
    • Health Science
    • Physics
    • other →

    Top subcategories

    • Anthropology
    • Law
    • Political Science
    • Psychology
    • Sociology
    • other →

    Top subcategories

    • Accounting
    • Economics
    • Finance
    • Management
    • other →

    Top subcategories

    • Aerospace Engineering
    • Bioengineering
    • Chemical Engineering
    • Civil Engineering
    • Computer Science
    • Electrical Engineering
    • Industrial Engineering
    • Mechanical Engineering
    • Web Design
    • other →

    Top subcategories

    • Architecture
    • Communications
    • English
    • Gender Studies
    • Music
    • Performing Arts
    • Philosophy
    • Religious Studies
    • Writing
    • other →

    Top subcategories

    • Ancient History
    • European History
    • US History
    • World History
    • other →

    Top subcategories

    • Croatian
    • Czech
    • Finnish
    • Greek
    • Hindi
    • Japanese
    • Korean
    • Persian
    • Swedish
    • Turkish
    • other →
 
Profile Documents Logout
Upload
General Physics I
General Physics I

... Enet ...
Three-dimensional electromagnetic breathers in carbon
Three-dimensional electromagnetic breathers in carbon

... kn ¼ k ¼ 1 (equivalent to the pulse half-width along the axes Ox and Oy equal to Ly ¼ Lx ¼ kn c=x0  3  104 cm). Figure 1 presents the field intensity distribution in the array of CNTs in the planes nOf andpOf ffiffi at different instants of the dimensionless time s ¼ x0 t= e. The field intensity is ...
Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Periodic Porous Structures I
Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Periodic Porous Structures I

... incident light and the thickness of the structure are again of the same order, but they are only a factor of three times larger than the period. Although the theory developed in this paper requires these scales to be disparate, our results may offer some qualitative information about these devices. ...
Notes for Solid State Theory FFF051/FYST25
Notes for Solid State Theory FFF051/FYST25

... of solid state physics, such as Snoke (2008), Hofmann (2008), Ibach and Lüth (2003) or Kittel (1996), to which is frequently referred. Solid state theory is a large field and thus a 7.5 point course must restrict the material. E.g., important issues such as calculation schemes for the electronic st ...
Unit 5: The Quantum World
Unit 5: The Quantum World

Electric Fields - AP Physics 2 Homework Page
Electric Fields - AP Physics 2 Homework Page

Phases of Matter and Phase Transitions
Phases of Matter and Phase Transitions

ELECTRONS: THE HIGH  ENERGY DISTRIBUTION S.
ELECTRONS: THE HIGH ENERGY DISTRIBUTION S.

... spectrum permit the particle distribution function to attain a steady state. Electron runaway to infinite momentum occurs only on the column axis while at other radii, the distribution is cut off by the friction from th unstable waves. ...
Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation
Dual Nature of Matter and Radiation

Using analogies to explain electrical relationships
Using analogies to explain electrical relationships

... For example, the comparison between the G and k allows deeper understanding of the relationship between Fg and Fe. In the next table, is the relationship between gravitational field strength and electric field strength. Students have difficulty seeing that “little g” is a measurement of field streng ...
Low-energy electron–argon scattering in a low-frequency laser field
Low-energy electron–argon scattering in a low-frequency laser field

Coherent whistler emissions in the magnetosphere
Coherent whistler emissions in the magnetosphere

... features, a coherency and a wave packet structure, are difficult to explain in terms of linear theories of cyclotron resonant instability fed by a temperature anisotropy, since the theory predicts a broader frequency range of excited waves with random phases. We suggest that the coherent structure o ...
Spin and photophysics of carbon-antisite potential quantum bit Linköping University Post Print
Spin and photophysics of carbon-antisite potential quantum bit Linköping University Post Print

... case, a closed shell singlet with a fully occupied a1 state and an empty e state forms. Since there is a gap between the a1 and e states one might consider the closed-shell singlet as the ground state. In this Rapid Communication, we show that the S = 1 state should be also considered, where the a1 ...
E2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
E2 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY -Chapter 19
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL ENERGY -Chapter 19

The Hydrogen Atom - Pearson Higher Education
The Hydrogen Atom - Pearson Higher Education

Document
Document

... Fig. 21.15 A charged body creates an electric field. Coulomb force of repulsion between two charged bodies at A and B, (having charges Q and qo respectively) has magnitude: ...
Gauss`s Law
Gauss`s Law

Physics
Physics

... recognise that, for a perfectly elastic collision between two bodies, the relative speed of approach is equal to the relative speed of separation ...
Electroweak Precision Observables and Effective
Electroweak Precision Observables and Effective

Non-conservative electron transport in CF4 in electric and magnetic
Non-conservative electron transport in CF4 in electric and magnetic

Chapter 2B
Chapter 2B

chapter2
chapter2

... the model. Therefore we test the dependence on the field model by calculating L* for electrons at a range of radial distance and input Dst values. Figure 3 plots L* values calculated for electrons at X=-8-8, Y=0, and Z=0 in magnetic coordinates using Dst values from 20nT to –100 nT at 10nT interval ...
Photon and Graviton Mass Limits
Photon and Graviton Mass Limits

chap10_propagation-reflection-of-plane
chap10_propagation-reflection-of-plane

< 1 ... 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 ... 338 >

Introduction to gauge theory

A gauge theory is a type of theory in physics. Modern theories describe physical forces in terms of fields, e.g., the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and fields that describe forces between the elementary particles. A general feature of these field theories is that the fundamental fields cannot be directly measured; however, some associated quantities can be measured, such as charges, energies, and velocities. In field theories, different configurations of the unobservable fields can result in identical observable quantities. A transformation from one such field configuration to another is called a gauge transformation; the lack of change in the measurable quantities, despite the field being transformed, is a property called gauge invariance. Since any kind of invariance under a field transformation is considered a symmetry, gauge invariance is sometimes called gauge symmetry. Generally, any theory that has the property of gauge invariance is considered a gauge theory. For example, in electromagnetism the electric and magnetic fields, E and B, are observable, while the potentials V (""voltage"") and A (the vector potential) are not. Under a gauge transformation in which a constant is added to V, no observable change occurs in E or B.With the advent of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, and with successive advances in quantum field theory, the importance of gauge transformations has steadily grown. Gauge theories constrain the laws of physics, because all the changes induced by a gauge transformation have to cancel each other out when written in terms of observable quantities. Over the course of the 20th century, physicists gradually realized that all forces (fundamental interactions) arise from the constraints imposed by local gauge symmetries, in which case the transformations vary from point to point in space and time. Perturbative quantum field theory (usually employed for scattering theory) describes forces in terms of force-mediating particles called gauge bosons. The nature of these particles is determined by the nature of the gauge transformations. The culmination of these efforts is the Standard Model, a quantum field theory that accurately predicts all of the fundamental interactions except gravity.
  • studyres.com © 2025
  • DMCA
  • Privacy
  • Terms
  • Report