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Monte Carlo simulation of electron transport in alternating
Monte Carlo simulation of electron transport in alternating

Against Dogma: On Superluminal Propagation in Classical
Against Dogma: On Superluminal Propagation in Classical

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... against all of Maxwell’s equations. We know that our trial solution satisfies the wave equation in our source-free region because our solution is the superposition of waves that do; it therefore also satisfies Faraday’s and Ampere’s laws in a source-free region, as well as Gauss’s laws. At the perfe ...
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... ionized (1+) atom, more energy is required to remove the second electron and produce a double ionized (2+) atom. This additional energy can be provided by electrons that undergo a greater acceleration because they are subjected to a greater electric field. Thus, higher-energy accelerated electrons c ...
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Introduction to gauge theory

A gauge theory is a type of theory in physics. Modern theories describe physical forces in terms of fields, e.g., the electromagnetic field, the gravitational field, and fields that describe forces between the elementary particles. A general feature of these field theories is that the fundamental fields cannot be directly measured; however, some associated quantities can be measured, such as charges, energies, and velocities. In field theories, different configurations of the unobservable fields can result in identical observable quantities. A transformation from one such field configuration to another is called a gauge transformation; the lack of change in the measurable quantities, despite the field being transformed, is a property called gauge invariance. Since any kind of invariance under a field transformation is considered a symmetry, gauge invariance is sometimes called gauge symmetry. Generally, any theory that has the property of gauge invariance is considered a gauge theory. For example, in electromagnetism the electric and magnetic fields, E and B, are observable, while the potentials V (""voltage"") and A (the vector potential) are not. Under a gauge transformation in which a constant is added to V, no observable change occurs in E or B.With the advent of quantum mechanics in the 1920s, and with successive advances in quantum field theory, the importance of gauge transformations has steadily grown. Gauge theories constrain the laws of physics, because all the changes induced by a gauge transformation have to cancel each other out when written in terms of observable quantities. Over the course of the 20th century, physicists gradually realized that all forces (fundamental interactions) arise from the constraints imposed by local gauge symmetries, in which case the transformations vary from point to point in space and time. Perturbative quantum field theory (usually employed for scattering theory) describes forces in terms of force-mediating particles called gauge bosons. The nature of these particles is determined by the nature of the gauge transformations. The culmination of these efforts is the Standard Model, a quantum field theory that accurately predicts all of the fundamental interactions except gravity.
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