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Biology
Acid: A chemical compound that releases H+ atoms
Base: A chemical compound that attracts H+ atoms, causing OH ions to accumulate.
Organic Compounds found in living things
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CHO
1. Monosaccharide- Glucose
2. Disaccharide- Sucrose
3. Poly Saccharide- Complex carbs, starches
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Lipids
1. Unsaturated fats- Have a Carbon to Carbon Double bond (C=C)
2. Saturated fats- Do not have a C=C
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Proteins
o Amino acids dehydration synthesis> peptides
Catalyst: Lowers the activation energyh of a reaction, speeding it up, but remains
unchanged itself.
Enzymes: Biological catalysts; protein molecules. Each enzyme catalyzes only 1 reaction
so there are 1000s of them. Increases in temperature will increase speed of reactions to a
point, excessive heat denatures proteins.
Substrate: Substance acted upon by enzyme.
Active Site: Portion of enzyme which interacts with substrate
Nucleaic Acids: Made up of nucleotides, which are made up of nitrogenous bases.
Prokaryotes: Cellular organisms that lack nuclei. Includes bacteria.
Eukaryotes: Cellular organisms that have nuclei, organelles. Includes plants, fungi,
animals.
Plasma(cell) Membrane: Lipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Selective permeability.
Cytoplasm: Gel like substance enclosed by membrane.
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Rough- has ribosomes. Smooth- does not have ribosomes.
Location of protein synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus: Flattened sacks that process and package lipids and proteins.
DNA
Organized into chromosomes, which have functional segments called genes.
Cell Wall: found only in plants. Is not selective like membrane.
Diffusion: When particles move from a high concentration to a lower concentration.
Osmosis: Water moving from a high concentration to lower concentration across a
semipermeable membrane.
Facilitated Diffusion: Diffusion encouraged by proteins. Still does not require energy.
Active Transport: When something has to move across the concentration gradient from
low to high. It requires energy.
Endocytosis: When a small patch of the plasma membrane encloses particles or fluid and
sinks into the cytoplasm.
Exocytosis: Directing of secretory vesicles out of the cell.
Exergonic reaction: Exothermic, gives off energy.
Endergonic reaction: Endothermic, requires energy.
Catabolism: Break doen of large complex molecules.
Anabolism: Synthesis of large molecules from smaller ones.
ATP is broken down into -> ADP + Phosphate Ion
Chemiosis: Formation of ATP, H+ gradient.
Cellular Respiration: Break down of CHO, release of CO2
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2.
3.
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Glycolysis: Glucose ->Pyruvic acid
Krebs Cycle: RedOx RXNs pyruvic acid -> NADH
Electron Transport: get ATP from electrons
Chemiosis: getting energy from ATP
Reproduction
Cell Cycle: Cellular growth and reproduction.
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Interphase : Follows mitosis, cell learns functions, develops, prepares for mitosis
Mitosis: Copies chromosomes
o Prophase Centrioles migrate to opposite poles
o Metaphase Pairs of chromatids line up on equatorial plate
o Anaphase Chromatids separate and become visible chromosomes and
migrate to opposite poles
o Telophase chromosomes arrive at opposite poles
o Cytokinesis cytoplasm divides into two separate cells.
Meiosis: Dividing of 1 diploid cell into 4 haploid gametes (daughter cells); creation of
sperm and egg cells.
Diploid: 2 sets of chromosomes (humans have 23 per set).
Haploid: Only 1 set of chromosomes
Gamete: Sexual reproduction cell
Homologous Chromosomes: Similar but not identical, may carry different versions of
same genetic info i.e. Blonde/black hair.
Chromatid: Homologous chromosomes joined at the centromere.
Zygote: Fertilized egg cell; diploid.
Alleles: Different forms of a gene- detached or hanging earlobes.
Genome: Set of all genes that specify an organism's traits.
Genotype: Gene composition of a living organism- ear lobes- 1 att 1 hang, 2 att or 2
hang.
Phenotype: What the person actually has, i.e. Detached or hanging.
Heterozygous: 2 different alleles- 1 attached, 1 hanging.
Homozygous: 2 of the same alleles- 2 hanging or 2 attached.
Intependent Assortment: Gene pairs separate independent of the other gene pairs.
Punnett Square: Creating a square with the genotype of one parent on the top side and
the genotype of the other parent on the left side. Allows you to calculate all possible
genotypes.
Incomplete Dominance: Both alleles express themselves- red + white = pink
Both genes still remain independent, so pink + pink = red, pink or white.
Multiple Alleles: Blood type is an example. You can be A, B, AB or neither(O)
Polygenic Inheritance: Genes for a trait located in many different places- heigh skin
color.
Gene Linkage: Inherit a large number of genes together if they are located in close
proximity.
Sex Chromosomes: 1 set of the 23 pairs of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes.
Females are XX males are XY
Sex Linked Trait: Certain genes may occur on the x or y chromosome e.g. Color
blindness.
Hemophelia occurs on 1 X and normal clotting on the other, so women can carry it but
usually males have it.
DNA
Watson & Crick DNA Structure: DNA is composed of 2 long nucleotide chains which
form a double helix
Nucleotide: Consists of 3 parts- Nitrogenous base, Phosphate group and a molecule of
Deoxyribose.
Nitrogenous Bases: Adenine<=> Thymine, Guanine<=>Cytosine- Complementary base
pairing.
Phosphate Group: Connects Deoxyribose molecules to one another in the nucleotide
chain.
Deoxyribose: 5 carbon CHO
DNA Replication: 46 chromosomes replicate into 92. Enzymes then unzip the double
helix.
RNA:
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Ribosomal RNA: Makes ribosomes
Transfer RNA: Located in cytoplasm, carries amino acids to ribosomes for
protein synth.
Messenger RNA: Receives genetic code from DNA takes it to cytoplasm for
protein synth.
Transcription: Enzyne reads 1 nucleotide and forms mRNA strand of complementary
bases.
Translation: Transfer genetic code to amino acid sequence in protein.
Recombinant DNA: Genes changed and DNA recombined
Biotechnology:
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Plasmids: Small loops of DNA used to insert new DNA
Restriction Enzymes: Catalyze opening of DNA molecule at a restricted point.
Vectors: Carriers of DNA
Ligase: Links ends of DNA
Polymerase Chain Reaction: Amplifies specific fragment of DNA
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphis: Analyze DNA fragments to
develop a pattern.
Evolution
Evolution: Random variations in living things with some natural external agent selecting
those individuals as better able to survive.
Populations evolve, not individuals. Changes in gene pool lead to evolutions.
Mutation: Random changes in populations gene pool.
Natural Selection: Selection of individuals who then pass on their traits, evolution
continues.
Survival of the fittest: The most fit to survive the given conditions and reproduce live.
Evidence for Evolution:
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Paleontology: fewer and more primitive organisms existed in the past
Comparative Anatomy: Similarities between animals
Vestigal Organs: Useless organs- the appendix.
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Similarities between embryos and Biochemistry of different animals.
Gene Flow: When populations combine with other populations.
Genetic Drift: When a small part of a population is placed in an isolated area.
Species: Populations whos members share a common gene pool.
Speciation: evolution of a species.
Hominids: Human like creatures
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Australopithecus could walk on 2 feet
Homo Habilis first human
Homo Erectus became more sophisticated
Homo Sapiens
Taxonomy: Classification of living things. Kingdom-> Division-> Class-> Order->
Family-> Genus-> Species.
5 Kingdoms:
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2.
3.
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5.
Monera: Bacteria, cyanobacteria. They are prokaryotes, reproduce asexually.
Protista: Eukaryotic, algae and mold,
Fungi
Plantae
Animals: Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic.
Heterotrophic: acquire food from organic matter.
Autotrophic: Synthesize own food
Vascular plants: Have specialized tissues to transport fluids
Xylem: Conducts water and minerals up from roots
Phloem: Transports sugars and nutrients from leaves.
Stomata: Pores in leaves that regulate gas exchange.
Adhesion: Water sticks to the walls of the xylem
Cohesion: Water molecules stick to each other.
Invertabrates: Animals that have no backbone.
Vertabrates: Animals that have a backbone. These include fish, amphibians(land or
water animals), reptiles, birds or mammals.
Hydrostatic Skeleton: Some animals have circular muscles that contract to form a fluid
based skeleton
Exoskeleton: External skeleton, found in Arthropods(lobsters, insects, spiders)
Endoskeleton: Internal support structure.
Chordata: Have a notochord (spine) and a nerve chord (spinal chord). Can be w/ or w/o
backbone.
Monotremes: egg laying animals that produce milk.
Marsupials: have pouches
Placentals: Humans dogs, have placentas.
Digestive system
Saliva: contains enzymes to begin breaking down food. Amylase- starches
Bolus: mass of food moving through system.
Peristalsis: Rhythmic contractions of esophogus.
Chyme: Soupy liquid in stomach.
Small intestine: 23 feet long. Duodenum, jejunum and ileum. Contain villi and
microvilli.
Respiration
Simple organisms: gasses diffuse across membranes.
Plants: Gasses pass through Stomata.
Animals: Diffusion accrosse moist membranes. It is between the environment and blood
Alveoli: Microscopic air sacs in lungs of mammals.
Human Respiration: Nose-> pharynx(back of throat) -> trachea(windpipe)
Glottis: opening of trachea
Epiglottis: Flap of tissue for swallowing.
Larynx: Voice box
Bronchi and Bronchioles: form a tree like structure in lungs.
Blood and Circulation
Plants: Vascular plants have xylem and phloem.
Arteries: heart pumps to arteries, they lead away from the heart.
Veins: lead back to the heart
Capillaries: blood vessels between arteries and veins.
Atrium: Receiving chamber- right receives O2 poor blood, left receives O2 rich blood.
Ventricle: Pumping chamber.
Coronary Arteries: supply heart muscle with blood.
Blood:
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Plasma: Fluid Portion
Red Blood Cells: have no nucleus, cytoplasm filled with Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin: binds to O2 and transports CO2
Antigen: On the surface of red blood cells.
White Blood Cells: have nuclei, used in the immune system
Platelets: Have No Nuclei; material for clotting.
Homeostasis: Stable internal environment.
Excretory system:
Kidneys: blood enters kidneys through renal arteries, leaves through renal veins.
Nephron: Functional/structural unit of the kidney. Produces urine and is primary unit of
homeostasis.
Antidiuretic Hormone(ADH): controls rate of water absorbtion
Bones
Endoskeleton: Provides support and protection(skull) muscle attaches to it so the bone
transmits the muscle contractions.
Osteoblasts: Produce inorganic materials for bone(fiber and matrix)
Osteoclasts: Break down bone material for turnover.
Osteocytes: Bone cells.
Chemical Coordination
Endocrine System:
Hormones: Proteins, sterol lipids.
Pituitary gland: At the base of the brain, secretes 9 hormones including HGH, ADH.
Thyroid Gland: at the base of neck
Parathyroid Glands: regulates calcium reabsorbtion in kidneys.
Adrenal Glands: cortex and medulla, release epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Pancreas: Secretes insulin and glucagon. Insulin promotes passing of glucose into blood,
glucagon stimulates breakdown of glycogen to glucose in liver.
Nervous Coordination
Neuron: Nerve cell. Has an Axon, which is a long extension coated in a myelin sheath.
The short extensions are dendrites.
Nerve: Bundles of axons bound together.
Sensory Neurons: Receive stimuli from senses.
Interneurons: connect sensory neurons to motor neurons
Motor Neurons: Transmit nerve impulses from brain and spinal chord to muscle or
gland.
Synapse: Space between end of axon and dendrite of next nerve cell or muscle cell.
Neurotransmitters: Chemical substances that occurs at the synapse and increases
permeability of next dendrite.
Nervous System
Central Nervous System:
Spinal Cord: has nerve roots which extend out along the cord.
Brain:
Medulla: Passageway for nerves
Pons: Bridge between portions of brain
Cerebrum: Regulates sensory activities
Thalamus: Integration point for sensory impulses.
Hypothalamus: Synthesizes hormones.
Peripheral Nervous System Collection of nerves that connect brain/spinal cord to the
rest of the body.
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Sensory Somatic System: receives info from external environment via senses.
Humans react voluntary to SSS info
Autonomic Nervous System: involuntary
o Sympathetic Nervous System: Prepares body for emergency(increase
HR, Dilate pupil)
o Parasympathetic Nervous System: Returns body to normal after an
emergency.
Senses:
Eye:
Retina: Layer of nerve cells
Rod cells: Permit vision in dim light, located on the edge of the retina.
Cone Cells: Detect color, located at the center of the retina
Ear: Outer ear receives vibrations, sends them to eardrum who sends them to inner ear.
Taste/smell: Chemoreceptors receive info, send to olfactory nerve.
Ecology
Population: group of one species in a defined area.
Symbiosis: Two populations in permanent association
Mutualism: when a symbiotic relationship is beneficial to both populations
Ecosystem:
Producers: Autotrophs, photosynthesizing organisms.
Consumers: Heterotrophs, eat producers.S
Food Chain: Diagram showing transfer of food energy.
Food Web: Many food chains interacting.
Decomposers: Bacteria or fungi, organisms of decay.
Biosphere: blanket of living things that surrounds the earth. Living organisms, physical
environment and thin layer of gas.
Biomes: deserts, forests, prairies, tundras.