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The American Revolution: Battle Over Who Will
Govern
Part II
a. Parliamentary Supremacy—The Central Issue
Parliament
(1) Who Will Rule—Parliament or the People?
"The central element in this Anglo-American debate was a concept known as parliamentary sovereignty. The English
ruling class viewed the role of Parliament from a historical perspective that most colonists never shared. They insisted
that Parliament was the dominant element within the constitution. . . . [During] the Glorious Revolution of 1688. . . the
English crown family formally recognized Parliament's supreme authority in matters such as taxation. . . . The notion of
dividing or sharing sovereignty simply made no sense to the English ruling class. . . . No middle ground existed 'between
the supreme authority of Parliament and the total dependence of the colonies: it is impossible there should be two
independent legislatures in one and the same state' [Thomas Hutchinson, royal governor of Massachusetts] . . . .
Parliamentary leaders could never quite understand why the colonists were so difficult to persuade. . . . Americans most
emphatically did not see it in their 'interest' to maintain the 'supremacy of Parliament.' The crisis in imperial relations
forced the colonists first to define and then to defend principles deeply rooted in their own political culture. For more
than a century, their ideas about the colonies' role within the British empire had remained a vague, untested bundle of
assumptions about personal liberties, property rights, and representative institutions. . . . Since no one in the mother
country bothered to clip their [provincial assemblies’] legislative wings, these provincial bodies assumed a major role in
policy making and routine administration. . . . It seemed unreasonable, therefore, for the British suddenly to insist on the
supremacy of Parliament. The constitutional debate turned ultimately on the meaning of representation itself. In 1764, a
British official informed the colonists that even though they had not elected members to Parliament. . . there were
nevertheless 'virtually' represented by that august body. The members of parliament, he declared, represented the
political interests of everyone who lived in the British empire. It did not really matter whether they had cast a vote. . . .
[However,] the only representatives that the Americans recognized as legitimate were those actually chosen by the
people for whom they spoke. . . . British strategists never appreciated the depth of the Americans' commitment to a
political ideology. . . . [Among American troops, there was] a remarkable commitment to republican ideals" (America, pp.
128-129, 147).
(2) An Issue Cast in Moral Garb
An allegory (far left) of the
Coercive or “Intolerable”
Acts (see D. 7. below) as the
British force their will on the
colonies. Satan (immediate
left) shows horrified English
Parliamentarians their
destiny of defeat in North
America.
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Americans "seem to have gained resolution from a deep Protestant tradition, a set of religious values recently
reinforced during the Great Awakening. For ordinary men and women, the American Revolution may have
seemed a kind of morality play, a drama that transformed complicated issues of representation and sovereignty into
a stark conflict between American good and British evil. . . . Religious passions helped to draw" many Americans
into the fray. Moreover, "the devil was a familiar feature in American political cartoons," and patriots cast British
loyalists "not only as political opponent[s] but also as a moral traitor." The victim of tarring and feathering
"became the main actor in a public morality play, in which he was wheeled in a cart before jeering crowds and
forced to repent." Americans accused Benedict Arnold "of selling out to the devil." Revolutionary leaders
channelled "protestant moral fervor into a commitment to the patriot cause. . . . During the war itself . . . religion
helped sustain patriotism. . . Religious symbol and ritual thus galvanized common men and women by expressing
in moral terms the issues that divided the colonies from England. The Great Awakening [Wesleyan revivalist
orator, George Whitfield, had set off a frenzy of religious enthusiasm during his tour of America in the late-1730s]
had prepared the colonists to view the contest in terms of American virtue and English vice, of God and the devil.
By appealing to the strong Protestant tradition in the colonies, patriots mobilized the American people for
revolution" (America, pp. 138-139. For an additional application of this concept—political position equated with moral virtue or the lack
thereof—see also pp. 214-215).
Gilbert Tennent
(1703-1764)
Jonathan
Edwards (17031758)
George Whitefield
(1714-1770)
The
Triumvirate
of the Great
Awakening
(left);
Whitefield
preaching
(right)
The movement
stimulated religious sensitivities
Benedict Arnold
(1741-1801)
Arnold betraying Colonial
interests by passing
information to the British
"By the beginning of the eighteenth century, the survivors of the old Puritan order lamented the disappearance of
the fervent sense of mission and charged that Bostonians had grown more interested in making money than in
discussing Calvinist doctrine" (Modern Europe, p. 449).
A. Final Prelude to Revolt
1. Townshend Duties, June-July 1767
Townshend himself "was an impetuous man whose mouth often outran his mind." His "ill-conceived duties
unnecessarily angered the colonists," and also "hurt English manufacturers." They constituted a "grab bag" of
duties on imports to America (America, pp. 135, 140).
Colonial dissent often
found expression in
overt acts of violence,
for example the
tarring and feathering
of British officials
seeking to collect the
hated taxes placed on
the American
colonists.
Lord Charles
Townshend,
1725-1767
2
These were new imposts dressed up in the guise of "indirect taxes."
a. Levies or import taxes placed on:
(1) paint
(2) glass
(3) lead
(4) tea
The taxes demonstrated Parliament's determination to raise revenue in America.
b. Instruments of Enforcement
(1) American Board of Customs Commissioners
The Board regularly abused its powers of search and seizure—"Writs of Assistance"1—not to
mention the fact that its officials took advantage of Board’s authority for personal gain.
Commissioners were short-sighted, corrupt, and unable to control their greed.
(a) abuse of powers
i) search and seizure
ii) personal enrichment
(b) harassment of wealthy, powerful Bostonians
"The commissioners' actions drove some members of the colonial ruling
class into opposition to the king's government” (America, p. 140).
(2) Rigorous Enforcement of the Navigation Acts
c. American response
(1) boycott of British goods—"rituals of non-consumption"
Boycotting Tea
The Patriotic Ladies of
Edenton, North Carolina
(left)—a satirical cartoon
appearing in London in
March 1775 to
“commemorate” the
decision of those women
to refrain from drinking
English tea.
The boycott movement
reached its logical
conclusion in 1773 with
the so-called “Boston
Tea Party” (D. 6. below)
and the destruction of
thousands of dollars
worth of tea in Boston
Harbor.
Boston Tea Party
Organized by Sons of Liberty, these actions were "moments of public
moral reaffirmation" (America, p. 136).
(2) attempts to stimulate American manufacturing, develop own industries
d. House of Commons Drops Townshend Duties, 1767-1770
However, they retained the tax on tea as a "reminder that England's rulers still subscribed
to the principles of the Declaratory Act. They would not compromise the supremacy of
Parliament" (America, p. 140).
e. Circular Letter of Massachusetts—February 11, 1768
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This could be and was "dramatized as an invasion of an Englishman's fundamental rights." Modern Europe, p. 451.
3
The General Court of
Massachusetts sent out this
moderate letter to other
colonial legislatures
summarizing its opposition
to the Townshend Duties
and soliciting suggestions
about what to do
Lord Hillsborough, England's Secretary
for American Affairs, perceived this
letter as grossly treasonous. Suddenly,
the letter became a cause célèbre, the
royal governor of Massachusetts
dissolving the House of
Representatives.
“The
atmosphere [in
1768], already
inflamed, fed on
its own high
temperature"
(Modern Europe, p.
452).
"In fact, Parliament's challenge
had brought about the very results
it most wanted to avoid: a
foundation for inter-colonial
communication and a
strengthening of conviction among
the colonists of the righteousness
of their position" (America, p. 136).
f. The American response precipitated:
2. Boston Harbor/Long Wharf—September 30, 1768
This precipitate action of transferring 4,000 regular
troops from Nova Scotia and Ireland in Boston "raised
tensions almost to the pitch they had reached during the
Stamp Act riots." The action was taken "in part to save
money and in part to intimidate colonial trouble-makers."
In fact, it raised "more acutely than ever the issue of why
troops were in America at all" (America, p. 136).
a. Perceived as Act of Vindictiveness
**The placing of British troops in Boston implied a use of force to enforce the new
duties. Americans perceived the act as one of pure vindictiveness.
b.Competition in the Work Place
The British redcoats were underpaid and ill-treated. They sought to compensate by
competing for local jobs as dockworkers or artisans, putting additional pressure on an
already over-employed work environment.
c. Colonial Pamphleteering Against the British Presence
These writers articulated a pattern of tyranny which seemed manifest to them. The
consequent discontent precipitated a series of petty incidents culminating in:
3. The Boston Massacre—March 5, 1770
Paul Revere immortalized the incident with his
famous and widely circulated engraving to the left. On
the far right stands the monument erected in 1888 to
commemorate the five colonists who died at the hands
of Red-coated British soldiers. Revere’s image
inflamed colonist attitudes and confirmed their worst
suspicions about British “misrule.”
Another artist’s depiction
of the Boston Massacre
a. Angry colonials pelted British soldiers with snowballs
As the mob grew increasingly threatening, the soldiers panicked.
b. Five (not 7 as legend has it) men were killed
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Victims were memorialized in extravagant terms, the
most widely known being the famous Revere engraving
(above) that became an instant best-seller.
Sequel to this crescendo of
events: the British repealed
all taxes save that placed on
tea.
4. The Gaspee Incident, 1772
a. The Gaspee ran aground in Narragansat Bay
b. Its commander, Lieutenant Dudingston antagonized the people of the area by his
officious zeal.
c. Local residents of Providence, Rhode Island went aboard the Gaspee and burned it.
Colonials took
considerable
pleasure in burning
the Gaspee and
striking a blow
against perceived
British arrogance
and abuse of power.
The Gaspee, run
aground in Narragansat
Bay, is burned by Rhode
Islanders.
The Gaspee burns
d. These actions further convinced the British that colonials were lawless
5. Tea Act of 1773—Precipitation of the Final Crisis
a. Financial difficulties of the British East India Company
BEIC Seal (above) and
ships (left & far right)
The East India
Company’s interests were
globe-girdling
Their problem was in part the product of American boycott of tea, which
left a large store of tea on the company's hands.
b. Parliament allowed the BEIC to sell directly to the colonies (which lowered the price of
tea for colonials).
This process cut out the wholesaling English middle men and channelled tea
directly to American retailers, thereby eliminating payment of duties in England.
It provided the colonials with high quality tea at low prices.
c. Americans perceived the situation as an assertion of Parliamentary
supremacy/domination
(1) The new act seemed a devious scheme to seduce colonists to support
Parliamentary right to tax without consent of those taxed
(2) The act threatened to undercut powerful colonial merchants who made a good
profit dealing in smuggled Dutch tea.
5
Bostonian "Samuel Adams and
his fellow agitators inflamed
excited crowds with their single
argument that to permit the tea to
land was to submit, abjectly to
tyranny from overseas" (Modern
Europe, p. 452).
On Samuel Adams: He "was a genuine revolutionary, an ideologue filled with a burning sense of indignation at the real
and alleged wrongs suffered by his countrymen. . . . He kept the cause alive with a drumfire of publicity. He reminded
the people of Boston that the tax on tea remained in force. He organized public anniversaries commemorating the repeal
of the Stamp Act and the Boston Massacre. . . . He seemed obsessed with the preservation of public virtue. The
American goal, he declared, was the creation of a 'Christian Sparta,' an ideal commonwealth in which vigilant citizens
would constantly guard against the spread of corruption, degeneracy, and luxury [cf. John Winthrop]. . . . He observed
ominously that the British intended to use the tea revenue to pay judicial salaries, thus freeing the judges from
dependence upon the assembly. . . . [Through the vehicle of committees of correspondence] Adams developed a
structure of political cooperation completely independent of royal government" (America, p. 141).
6. The Boston Tea Party, December 16, 1773
The Exploding Teapot
(left) illustrates how “tea”
was a flashpoint for
resisting British rule.
Respectable Bostonians watched
as “Mohawk Indians” destroyed
British cargo.
Colonists dumped 340 chests (£10,000 or $75,000 worth) of tea into Boston harbor.
"The North ministry was stunned. The people of Boston had treated parliamentary supremacy
with utter contempt, and British rulers saw no humor whatsoever in the destruction of private
property by subjects of the Crown dressed in costume" (America, p. 142).
7. The Coercive (or Intolerable) Acts, 1774
"Wooden-headedness enjoyed no finer
hour. . . . [British] emotionalism. . .
ignited [colonial] solidarity" (Barbara
Tuchman, March of Folly, pp. 196-197, 200201).
Barbara
Tuchman,
1912-1989
**“Wooden-headedness” is acting
against your own self-interest, even
when you need not do so
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"In part, the impasse resulted from sheer ignorance. Few Englishmen active in government had ever visited
America. . . . Accurate information proved extremely difficult to obtain. . . . One could not expect to receive
from America an answer to a specific question in less than three months. As a result of the lag in
communication between England and America, rumors sometimes passed for true accounts, and
misunderstanding influenced the formulation of colonial policy. But failure of communication alone was not
to blame for the widening gap between the colonists and England. Even when complete information was
available, the two sides were often unable to understand each other's positions" (America, p. 128).
"Rumor, half-truths and outright fabrication were
read to the British and the Colonials. Emotionalism
carried many along the path toward war. Reason
dragged itself along slowly in the rear. War was not
imminent" (Raymond McNair, Ascent to Greatness, p. 71).
"Events had forced the colonists to think out their
relation with Great Britain. . . . Fumblingly but
inexorably, they were also becoming aware of their
common interests, their Americanism. . . . A nation
was being born" (John Garraty, American Nation, pp. 86-87).
a. Boston Port Bill
Boston port was
closed until full
payment for the tea
was made.
Boston Harbor today
b. Administration of Justice Act
Court cases could be tried outside Massachusetts if the governor so deemed it wise.
c. Massachusetts Government Act
The colony's charter was drastically restructured/revised with the power of the
governor strengthened and the effectiveness of the town meetings reduced.
(1) Power of governor strengthened at expense of local government
He received the right to transfer British officials arrested for offenses done in
line of duty to England thus reducing likelihood of their conviction.
(2) The upper house became an appointed rather than an elected body.
(3) The Act reduced the number of legal annual town meetings to one.
(4) The Act authorized the army to quarter troops wherever they were needed.
In total, these tough actions amounted to a "sweeping denial of constitutional liberties
[and] confirmed the colonists' worst fears. To men like Samuel Adams, it seemed as if
Britain really intended to enslave the American people. Colonial moderates found their
position shaken by the vindictiveness of the Coercive Acts. . . . Few persons advocated
independence, but they could not remain passive while Boston was destroyed. . . . In the
midst of this constitutional crisis, Parliament announced plans to establish a new civil
government for the Canadian province of Quebec" (America, p. 142).
8. The Quebec Act, June 22, 1774
The Act redefined the Province of Quebec to include all lands north of the Ohio River and
east of the Mississippi River.
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The Quebec Act
restored the
Catholic Church’s
right to tithes and
levies. The Act also
extended the
boundaries of
Quebec.
The new boundaries were
at the junction of the Ohio
and Mississippi rivers,
thwarting ambitions of furtraders in the 13 colonies.
Sir Guy Carleton,
Governor of Quebec (right)
a. A blow for Catholicism
Colonials perceived this as a blow for popery since French civil law permitted
religious freedom for Roman Catholics, not to mention a large voice in local
political affairs.
b. Restriction of westward expansion
Claims of various states to western territory were made null and void.
B. Committees of Correspondence
Suffolk Resolves—encouraged forcible resistance to Coercive Acts
C. Revolt of the Colonies
"The revolutionary movement generated a momentum that they [colonial leaders drawn from
the gentry, the rich, and the wellborn who resented Parliament's efforts to restrict their rights
within the Empire] could not control. As relations with the mother country deteriorated,
particularly after 1765, the traditional leaders of colonial society invited the common folk to
join the protest—as rioters, as petitioner, and finally, as soldiers. Newspapers, sermons, and
pamphlets helped transform what had begun as a squabble among the gentry into a mass
movement, and . . . once the common people had become involved in shaping the nation's
destiny, they could never again be excluded" (America, p. 126).
"Lord
Chatham,
Edmund Burke, even
Lord North himself
suggested far-reaching
concessions. But then
large-scale
violence
frustrated such hopes"
(Modern Europe, p. 453).
These circumstances were intimately tied to the birth of the U.S. as a nation and help to
explain much of the nation's national psyche today.
1. **Lexington and Concord—April 18, 1775
At Lexington, 8 colonials died.
Special companies
of the
Massachusetts
militia prepared to
respond quickly to
military
emergencies.
"Minuteman" (above)
Pitcairn’s Redcoats
attack militiamen on
Lexington Green
A new style of warfare:
guerilla
“The Shot Heard ’Round the
World” fired on the
Lexington Green
The British at Concord
The militia of Lexington was "a collection of ill-trained
farmers, boys as well as old men" (America, p. 144).
2. Bunker [Breed's] Hill—June 17, 1775
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"Colonial militiamen again held their own against seasoned troops. . . . [British General Gage (17211787), right] suffered 40 percent casualties. . . . During the earliest months of rebellion. . . [the
Americans] suffered no lack of confidence. Indeed, they interpreted their courageous stands at
Concord and Bunker Hill as evidence that brave, yeomen farmers could lick British regulars on any
battlefield" (America, p. 147).
3. Dispatching of General Howe and 50,000 British Troops to America
This action came once the British government realized that it would take more than a "police
action" to crush American rebellion.
Battle of Harlem
Heights, September 16,
1776. Howe (right)
succeeded General
Thomas Gage in 1775
as Commander of
British forces in North
America.
Sir William
Howe, 1729-1814
a. New York
b. New Jersey
c. Howe's Offer of a General Pardon
4. Declaration of Independence—July 4, 1776.
The document was "a
mixture of natural-law
sentiments and specific
grievances" (Modern
Europe, p. 453).
Thomas
Jefferson,
author of the
Declaration
A draft of
Jefferson’s
Declaration
(right)—he took
great offense to the
edits that his
colleagues insisted
on including in his
original document.
a. Independence Not the Original Intent
"Colonists who were alive during the 1760s did
not anticipate the coming of independence. . . .
It is testimony to the Americans' lingering
loyalty to the British Crown and constitution
that rebellion did not occur in 1765. . . . [Even
after Lexington and Concord] many Americans
were not convinced that such a step
[independence] was either desirable or
necessary" (America, pp. 126, 135, 144).
The Grand Union Flag
9
The ambiguity of the Grand Union Flag (left),
a.k.a., the “Cambridge Flag” (raised at
Cambridge, Massachusetts in January 1776):
it combined the stripes of the rebellious
colonies with the British Union flag. It flew
over Prospect Hill and overlooked the city of
Boston. The flag sports the crosses of Saint
George and Saint Andrew—and are borrowed
from the British flag.
Common Elements Contributing to a Sense of Uniqueness:
(1) most Americans were farmers
(2) availability of plentiful, free land to American populace
(3) thinly scattered population
b. Signers of the Declaration
Fifty-six men signed. Of these, 33 held college degrees. There were 5 doctors, 11 merchants, 4 farmers,
22 lawyers, and 3 ministers. Nearly all were affluent.
The official status of the colonies was "unambiguous: they were colonies, governed from England presumably
for its sake. Yet these colonies displayed most of the characteristics one expects from developed states. They
had far-flung trade, established elites, social conflicts, colleges, newspapers, and an emerging self-awareness. .
. . Through the seventeenth century, American colonials had looked to England as their home, and their
attachment reflected more than economic or political dependence. England set the tone for Americans: their
religious and political convictions, their cultural styles. . . came from there. . . . It was not until the eighteenth
century that this began to change. Economic self-interest dictated conduct sharply at variance with the needs
of the mother country. . . . While the colonies squabbled with one another over boundaries. . . the American
colonists had enough common interests (inter-colonial trade) and common enemies (the Native Americans, the
French, and increasingly, the English government) to develop a certain sense of distance from Europe and a
certain sense of identity. Yet it is striking how slowly these feelings grew; Americans became Americans with
marked reluctance. . . . Through the 1760s. . . [they] borrowed their most subversive ideas from English
political writers. . . . America's separation from England and from Europe came, when it finally did come, with
English and with European words and ideas. . . . The special quality of the American experience—what made
Americans American—has been debated since the time of the Revolution. . . . [The] assertion of American
uniqueness. . . . Despite all opportunities for independent development, the ties between the colonies and the
motherland remained intimate to the very edge of the revolution" (Modern Europe, pp. 447-449).
c. Continuing British Provocation
"The British government appeared intent upon transforming colonial
moderates into angry rebels" (America, pp. 144-145).
(1) Prohibitory Act—December 1775
Declared war on American commerce; enforced with seizure of American
ships and naval blockade to prevent American trade with rest of world.
(2) Hiring of German Mercenaries (Hessians) to put down revolt
(3) Royal Governors urging slave revolt
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