Download [4] A revolution in ancient Egypt Ancient Egypt underwent a genuine

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A revolution in ancient Egypt
Ancient Egypt underwent a genuine revolution around 1350 BC. Instead of the worship of the
many traditional gods, only one god was worshipped: the solar disc Aten. The Egyptian capital
was transferred to Central Egypt. The Egyptian artists broke with the strict, time-hallowed rules
and aimed at a greater realism.
The revolution was the work of the king of Egypt. This pharaoh called himself Akhenaten (‘He
who makes himself useful for Aten’). The pharaoh, his wife Nefertiti and their six daughters were
worshipped together with the god Aten.
Was Akhenaten a madman or a genius? What role did the beautiful and powerful Queen
Nefertiti play? And who was the child Tutankhamun, the young king who after their death put
everything back as it was?
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Revolution on the way
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The revolution in art
The Egyptian artists worked traditionally for the gods and the dead. Both the gods and the dead
need eternal homes: temples and tombs. Scenes of sacrifice and ritual are depicted on the walls
of tombs and temples. This is the only way for creation and life to continue to exist after death.
That is why statues and reliefs represent an ideal world. The images of humans, pharaohs and
gods are endowed with never-ending youth and beauty. There is no perspective or depth.
Everything has fixed proportions.
Pharaoh Amenhotep III encouraged artists to put more expression into their work: more of a
squint in the eyes, thinner arms and legs, rounder bellies. His son, the pharaoh Akhenaten, made
a drastic break with tradition. In the early years of Akhenaten’s reign, Egyptian portraiture often
looked like a caricature.
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From Amenhotep to Akhenaten
Akhenaten’s revolution did not come like a bolt out of the blue. His father, the pharaoh
Amenhotep III, was already experimenting with new religious and artistic ideas.
Amenhotep III was the first pharaoh in Egyptian history to be represented as a god during his
lifetime. Starting in the thirtieth year of his reign, he called himself ‘the Radiant Solar Disc (Aten)’
and other names. His wife Tiy, though not of royal blood, shared in that godlike status.
When the eldest son Thutmose died prematurely, a new crown prince was appointed:
Amenhotep IV. He probably ruled for a few years as coregent with his father. He married
Nefertiti, the daughter of a high-ranking official. Within five years of coming to the throne,
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Amenhotep IV had developed his radical ideas and changed his name to Akhenaten (‘He who
makes himself useful for Aten’).
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Dismissal of the gods
The Egyptians traditionally worshipped hundreds of gods at the same time. Many of them were
only of local importance, such as the patron deities of towns and villages, springs or mountains.
Others were known all over Egypt, such as the sun god Ra, the god of the underworld Osiris, or
the god Amun (whose name means ‘the Hidden One’). Amun was the god of the capital, Thebes,
which gave him de facto the position of supreme god in the pantheon or national god.
Gods could also be associated with one another. The sun god Ra played a particularly important
role in this. Thus we find Amun-Ra and Ra-Horakhty.
All those gods were actually invisible forces, but they were represented in human form or
(partly) as animals. Akhenaten put an end to that contradictory situation. He recognised a sole
god who was visible to everyone: the solar disc (Aten).
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A new frontier
Pharaoh Amenhotep IV did not feel at home in the capital of Thebes, the bastion of the national
god Amun. He provoked a conflict by building a number of temples for Aten on the site of the
sanctuary of Amun in Karnak. These temples were decorated with colossal statues of him and of
his wife Nefertiti.
In the fifth year of his reign the king changed his name to Akhenaten (‘He who makes himself
useful for Aten’). He also built a new capital: Akhetaten (‘Horizon of Aten’). Its ruins are near the
modern village of Tell el-Amarna in Central Egypt.
Fifteen boundary-markers were set up around the city. The texts inscribed on them state that
the pharaoh Akhenaten dedicated the land to Aten. Once he had made the move, Akhenaten
declared that he would never cross the city limits again. The break with tradition was complete.
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Life beneath the sun
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The city Akhetaten
Within a few years a new capital was constructed on the virgin bank of the Nile, near what is
now the village of Amarna. The location and city planning were carefully attuned to Akhenaten’s
religious ideas.
The city was called Akhetaten (‘Horizon of Aten’). It was situated on the east bank of the Nile.
At sunrise the sun is situated exactly in between two mountains in the east. That is precisely the
symbol for ‘horizon’ in hieroglyphs. Akhenaten had his tomb constructed in the dry desert valley
between those two mountains.
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The main road in the city ran from north to south and connected the royal palaces. In the middle
was the centre of the city with the sun temples for Aten. They had their entrance in the west,
but the sanctuary was orientated facing east towards the rising sun.
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The palaces
A number of palaces were situated along the ten kilometres of the ‘Royal
Road’. The palace where the pharaoh resided was located in the northernmost
part of the city. The ‘Great Palace’ for ceremonial receptions and the
‘King’s House’ for government duties were both located in the centre of
the city. They were connected with one another by a viaduct over the ‘Royal
Road’.
The palaces were sumptuously embellished with wall and floor paintings and inlaid decoration.
Scenes from nature glorified the solar disc, the source of all life. The sun’s rays entered through
lofty open colonnades.
A window with a balcony, the ‘Window of Appearances’, was set in an outer wall of the King’s
House. This was where Akhenaten and Nefertiti presented themselves to the populace and
distributed rewards among their courtiers. The palace archives contained the royal
correspondence: hundreds of clay tablets inscribed with texts in cuneiform.
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The royal family
Akhenaten himself was the high priest of Aten. He mediated between his god and his people. The
king and his family were therefore worshipped too. Statues of them stood in the temples of
Aten and on the domestic altars of the courtiers. Besides the royal portraits, unique portraits of
the domestic life of the family were also made.
Akhenaten and Nefertiti had six daughters. Nefertiti was very influential and powerful, but the
pharaoh also had a concubine, Kiya. She may have been the mother of Tutankhamun, the
successor to Akhenaten. Akhenaten’s mother Tiy was also a regular visitor to Akhetaten.
The caricatural early style now made way for a more balanced naturalism. The portraits of
Nefertiti are particularly beautiful. All the same, we still do not know what the persons
represented really looked like.
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Temples for the sun
Akhenaten’s city was dedicated to the sun god Aten. Aten was lord of creation and source of all
life. The name of the god was therefore written in two royal rings (cartouches), like that of the
pharaoh himself. Akhenaten was Aten’s earthly incarnation and his high priest.
There were two enormous sun temples for Aten in the centre of the city. The biggest was 750
metres long and consisted of a number of courtyards without a roof. Hundreds of altars stood
there in the open air and the sunlight.
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The king regularly visited the temple to offer food and drink to Aten. Nefertiti and the princesses
also played an important part in the ritual. Gardens with chapels (the so-called ‘sun shades’)
were situated on the outskirts of the city for the ritual performed by the female members of the
royal family.
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Hymn to Aten
Hymns traditionally played a major role in the celebrations of the gods. Priests recited these
texts to the accompaniment of choirs and musicians. The texts were also written on rolls of
papyrus or temple walls. Hymns usually made use of a fairly stereotyped language and resembled
one another.
Many hymns celebrated the god in question as creator and lord of all. It is as if the faithful only
paid heed to this single god. Nevertheless, the values of polytheism were never doubted.
A hymn was recited during the worship of Aten too. It is written in a surprisingly new and
original language. Aten was celebrated as the only god and as the creator of nature. Akhenaten is
believed to have composed the text himself. The longest version was discovered in the tomb of
his courtier Ay.
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Living image of Aten
Traditionally, the common people was not welcome at the daily offering rituals in Egyptian
temples. It was only during the annual processions that the faithful could catch a glimpse of the
divine image, when the statue was carried from one temple to another.
Spectators were not allowed into the temples of Aten either. There was no longer even any
statue of the god, because the pharaoh Akhenaten was himself the ‘Living image of Aten’.
Akhenaten’s daily procession over the ‘Royal Road’ took the place of the traditional processions.
Preceded by soldiers and courtiers, the royal chariot passed through the city on its way to the
residence, government palace or temple. Spectators threw themselves to the ground before the
pharaoh Akhenaten. On special occasions the king cruised on the river in his bark of state.
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The new style
Akhenaten used art as a way of spreading his ideas. Architects and artists were the first residents
of Akhetaten. They designed the city in accordance with the ideas of the pharaoh Akhenaten.
Akhenaten’s chief sculptor Bak claimed that the pharaoh in person had taught him the new
artistic style. The veneration of the sun god as the creator of nature was reflected in a more
naturalistic style. The fanaticism of Akhenaten led to more expression. Artists practised new
forms on the basis of plaster models and sketches.
The new naturalism was manifested in the new proportions of the human body. Landscape
scenes suggested depth. The interest in family life was expressed in an explicit rendering of age,
emotions and intimacy.
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Cityscape
Apart from the court, Akhetaten was a city like any other in ancient Egypt. The professional
population consisted of civil servants, priests, craftsmen and farmers. A few foreigners, mainly
Nubians and Syrians, lived there as well.
The villas of the wealthy with their large gardens were sometimes situated between the poorer
neighbourhoods. The rectangular city houses consisted of a number of rooms on the ground
floor and a roof terrace. Workshops and stores alternated with houses. Illustrations show that
there were sheds for the cattle that were sacrificed in the temples. There must also have been
stables near the palaces. Water was provided by wells everywhere.
The buildings were made of sun-dried mud bricks. Only in the temples, palaces and villas were
certain parts made of the more expensive limestone.
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Living in Achetaton
Objects found in the houses in Akhetaten give a good impression of everyday life. The mud brick
houses were sparsely furnished. Daylight entered through the barred windows. Only the
wealthiest had sanitary facilities.
The people spun and wove to make their linen clothing. They wore plaited sandals and colourful
jewellery. Painted pottery, either made in Akhetaten or imported, was used to store food or
cosmetics. A less elaborate pottery was used for cooking utensils. The most expensive
possessions were metal tools. The people took many costly items with them, however, when
they eventually left the city.
The wealthy had domestic altars with politically correct figurines of the royal family. Belief in the
old gods and in magic still predominated in secret in the homes of commoners.
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Life without sun
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The tomb of Paatenemheb
The influence of the new religion did not extend very far outside Akhenaten’s capital. There
were temples to Aten in Thebes and Memphis alone, while in the rest of the country the old
temples were closed and the statues of the gods were destroyed. All the same, many people
remained true to the old gods.
Only a few people called themselves after Aten. The courtier Paatenemheb is one of them: his
name means ‘the Aten celebrates’. Yet in this chapel, which stood over his tomb, Paatenemheb
worships the god Osiris. There is not a trace of Aten to be found.
After the death of Akhenaten, Akhetaten was abandoned. The revolution was over.
Paatenemheb built his chapel in the cemetery of the new capital, Memphis, near the present-day
village Saqqara. His function in Memphis was as ‘butler’ of the new pharaoh, Tutankhamun.
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The death of Akhenaten
Akhenaten died in the seventeenth year of his reign (c. 1336 BC). A royal tomb had already been
carved in the eastern mountains of Akhetaten. The body of the pharaoh was buried there and
laid beside those of his mother Tiy and three of his daughters. Nefertiti did not survive her
husband for long. She may have ruled the country for a brief spell. Nothing is known about her
place of burial.
The members of the court also had tombs prepared for them on the outskirts of the city. Many
of them were never used. Akhenaten’s religion did not have much to offer the dead. Aten did not
hold out the promise of an afterlife to the dead, and the god of the dead Osiris had been
declared taboo. Many traditional funerary gifts were abolished by Akhenaten.
So those who were free to choose decided not to be buried in Akhetaten. After Akhenaten’s
death the city was abandoned and it disappeared beneath the sand.
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The tomb of Horemheb
Soon after Akhenaten’s death, supporters of the old religion put the nine year-old Tutankhamun
on the throne. Akhetaten was abandoned, and Memphis became the new residence. The
topmost officials of the kingdom had their tombs constructed in the cemetery of Saqqara.
The largest tomb in this cemetery was built for General Horemheb. He was Minister of Defence
under the pharaoh Tutankhamun. In fact it was Horemheb, and not the young pharaoh, who was
responsible for Egyptian foreign policy. Horemheb also assumed the title of crown prince: the
general wanted to become pharaoh.
Akhenaten had neglected foreign policy, so Horemheb organised expeditions to Western Asia.
Great moments of his career are illustrated in his tomb. These illustrations show long lines of
foreign captives and the honouring of Horemheb by the pharaoh.
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Counter-revolution
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From child to king
Tutankhamun was nine years old when he came to the throne, and eighteen years old when he
died. He was probably a son of Akhenaten’s concubine Kiya. His name was Tutankhaten (‘Living
image of Aten’), but he changed it to Tutankhamun (‘Living image of Amun’) when he became
pharaoh.
The child king ruled in name, but it was experienced officials like Maya and Horemheb who
actually wielded power. Maya was ‘Director of the Treasury’, a sort of Minister of Finance, and
was in charge of the domestic running of the country. Horemheb was generalissimo or Minister
of Defence and restored order abroad. They turned back the clock after Akhenaten’s revolution.
When Tutankhamun died, he was buried in a simple tomb. Miraculously, it was never plundered
by grave-robbers.
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Back to the temples
Akhenaten had closed down the temples of the old gods, destroyed their statues, and erased
their names. Tutankhamun restored it all. The man in charge of this operation was the ‘Director
of the Treasury’, Maya.
After Tutankhamun died without leaving an heir, Ay became the new pharaoh (1322-1319 BC).
He was probably Nefertiti’s father. Afterwards General Horemheb seized power (1319-1292
BC). Horemheb distanced himself completely from the revolution of the pharaoh Akhenaten: in
his eyes Akhenaten was ‘the criminal of Akhetaten’. The temples and palaces of Akhenaten were
wilfully destroyed.
In spite of everything, some of Akhenaten’s ideas found a place in ancient Egyptian religion. For
instance, sometimes the later cult of the sun displays characteristics of monotheism.
Nevertheless, the Egyptians remained loyal to their many traditional gods in the centuries that
followed.
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Reining in the art style
The style of art that characterised the last years of Akhenaten’s reign was no longer so extreme,
so it did not change very much after his death. Egyptian art remained very naturalistic for quite
some time.
The interest in representing children, foreigners and the elderly persisted. Bodies were still
represented for a long time with the round bellies and thin arms and legs that they had in the art
of the pharaoh Akhenaten’s time. Most portraits, however, became idealised again.
From 1300 BC on, the old proportions and stylistic characteristics were reintroduced by the
pharaoh Horemheb and his successors of the new Ramesside dynasty (founded by Ramesses I).
All the same, the influence of Akhenaten’s art - ‘Amarna art’ - can still be seen, particularly in
landscape scenes.
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A headstrong pharaoh
Was King Akhenaten a madman or a genius? Many Egyptians must have regarded Akhenaten as a
dangerous fool. Their whole worldview collapsed and the new religion offered them little
security in return. That is why the pharaoh was vilified and his revolution annulled after his death.
If we look back over those three thousand years, we may arrive at a different view. Akhenaten
has been called ‘the first individual in history’, or ‘the first pioneer of monotheism’. But was it so
clever to confuse the people, and is it still monotheism if you and your family are worshipped
too?
Akhenaten’s revolution is above all interesting as an experiment with a new form of religion. The
Egyptians were not ready for it. Monotheism was to be developed by different nations.