Download Lesson_11_Pronouns

Lesson 11 Pronouns
11.1 Definition
A pronoun replaces a noun, a noun phrase or another pronoun with or without a
determiner. You use pronouns like he, which, none, you, etc., to refer back to a noun
or to take the place of that noun to make your sentences less cumbersome and less
repetitive.
11.2 Types of Pronouns
11.2.1
Personal Pronouns
11.2.1.1 A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes
its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case. Eg.
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
person: 1st person (I/we), 2nd person (you) or 3rd person (he/she/it)
number: singular (I/you/he/she/it) or plural (we/you/they)
gender: male (he), female (she) or neuter (it)
case: subject (I/you/we/he/she/they) or object (me/you/us/him/her/them)
Here are the personal pronouns:
number person
singular
plural
gender
personal pronouns
subject
object
1st
male/female
I
me
2nd
male/female
you
you
3rd
male
he
him
female
she
her
neuter
it
it
1st
male/female
we
us
2nd
male/female
you
you
3rd
male/female/neuter
they
them
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11.2.1.2
When we are talking about a single thing, we almost always use it.
However, there are a few exceptions. We may sometimes refer to an animal as
he/him or she/her, especially if the animal is domesticated or a pet. Ships (and
some other vessels or vehicles) as well as some countries are often treated as
female and referred to as she/her. Here are some examples:
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This is our dog Ruffie. He's a border collie mix.
The Titanic was a great ship but she sank on her first voyage.
My first car was a Mini and I treated her like my wife.
Thailand has now opened her border with Cambodia.
For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she. There
are several solutions to this:
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

If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.
11.2.2
Possessive Pronouns
11.2.2.1
A possessive pronoun is a pronoun that indicates a possession relation.
The possessive pronouns are mine, yours, hers, his, its, ours, and theirs.
We use possessive pronouns depending on:



number: singular (mine/yours/his/hers/its) or plural (ours/yours/theirs)
person: 1st person (mine/ours), 2nd person (yours) or 3rd person
(his/hers/its)
gender: male (his), female (hers)
Below are the possessive pronouns.
number person gender (of "owner") possessive pronouns
singular
1st
male/female
mine
2nd
male/female
yours
3rd
male
his
female
hers
2
plural
1st
male/female
ours
2nd
male/female
yours
3rd
male/female/neuter
theirs
Examples*:

Look at these pictures. Mine is the big one. (subject = My picture)

I like your flowers. Do you like mine? (object = my flowers)

I looked everywhere for your key. I found John's key but I couldn't find yours.
(object = your key)

My flowers are dying. Yours are lovely. (subject = Your flowers)

All the essays were good but his was the best. (subject = his essay)
John found his passport but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her passport)
John found his clothes but Mary couldn't find hers. (object = her clothes)
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
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Here is your car. Ours is over there, where we left it. (subject = Our car)
Your photos are good. Ours are terrible. (subject = Our photos)
Each couple's books are colour-coded. Yours are red. (subject = Your books)
I don't like this family's garden but I like yours. (object = your garden)
These aren't John and Mary's children. Theirs have black hair. (subject =
Their children)
John and Mary don't like your car. Do you like theirs? (object = their car)
Notice that each possessive pronoun can:


be subject or object
refer to a singular or plural antecedent
Notice that the interrogative pronoun whose can also be a possessive pronoun (an
interrogative possessive pronoun). Eg.

There was $100 on the table and Tara wondered whose it was. (Mok: Since
whose is both a possessive pronoun and a possessive adjective/determiner, one
can actually make use of either of its two parts of speech here. As a possessive
pronoun, it is used as the example above. When one responds to Tara, one can
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say, “The money was Mary’s,” or “The money was hers.” And as a

possessive adjective, one can also respond to Tara by saying, “It was Mary’s
money,” or “It was her money.”
This car hasn't moved for two months. Whose is it? (Mok: Same as above.)
* Adapted from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns-possessive.htm.
11.2.3
Demonstrative Pronouns
11.2.3.1
A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a thing or things.
The demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these, and those. Their uses are:


near in distance or time (this, these)
far in distance or time (that, those)
11.2.3.2 Note that the demonstrative pronouns are identical to demonstrative
adjectives. Obviously, you use them differently. A demonstrative pronoun stands
alone, while a demonstrative adjective qualifies a noun. (see 9.2.2.2) Eg.


That smells. (demonstrative pronoun)
That book is good. (demonstrative adjective + noun)
11.2.3.3 It is also important to note that "that" can also be used as a relative
pronoun. Eg.


That sucks. (demonstrative pronoun)
The car that hit him was red. (relative pronoun)
11.2.3.4 Normally we use demonstrative pronouns for things only. But we can
use them for people when the person is identified. Eg.
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
This is Paul speaking. Is that Janet?
That sounds like Phil.
11.2.3.5 More examples of demonstrative pronouns:



This sounds good.
Have you seen this?
These are lousy times.
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
Do you like these?

That is lovely.
Look at that!
Those were the days!
Can you see those?

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
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
This is lighter than that.
These are brighter than those.
11.2.4
Indefinite Pronouns
11.2.4.1 An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not
specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun conveys the idea of all, any,
none, or some.
The most common indefinite pronouns are all, another, any, anybody, anyone,
anything, each, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, nobody, none,
one, several, some, somebody, and someone.
11.2.4.2 Note that some indefinite pronouns also function as indefinite
adjectives/determiners (see 9.2.1.3). Eg.


That drink was good. Can I have another? (indefinite pronoun)
I'd like another drink, please. (indefinite adjective)
11.2.4.3 Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some
of them can be singular in one context and plural in another. Eg.#
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All is forgiven. (the whole quantity of something as a unit)
All have arrived. (the whole quantity of some things or people as individuals)
Is any left? (no matter how much)
Are any coming? (no matter how many)
There is more over there. (a greater quantity of something)
More are coming. (a greater number of people or things)
Most is lost. (the majority of something)
Most have refused. (nearly all of the people)
They fixed the water so why is none coming out of the tap? (not any water)
I invited five friends but none have come.** (no person or persons)
Here is some. (an unspecified quantity of something)
Some have arrived. (an unspecified number of people or things)
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11.2.4.4

Notice that a singular indefinite pronoun must take a singular verb, eg.
Each of the players has a doctor.
11.2.4.5 Note that any personal pronoun should agree (in number and gender
with the indefinite pronoun. Eg.
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
I met two girls. One has given me her phone number.
Many have expressed their views.
11.2.4.6 More examples of indefinite pronouns:#
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Can anyone answer this question?
The doctor needs to know if you have eaten anything in the last two hours.
Each has his own thoughts.
I don't mind. Either is good for me.
Enough is enough.
We can start the meeting because everybody has arrived.
They have no house or possessions. They lost everything in the earthquake.
Less is more.
Little is known about his early life.
Much has happened since we met.
I keep telling Jack and Jill but neither believes me.
I phoned many times but nobody answered.
Clearly somebody murdered him. It was not suicide.
If you don't know the answer it's best to say nothing.
Listen! I just heard something! What could it be?
All the students arrived but now one is missing.
One was tall and the other was short.
And you can see why. (an unidentified person, used informally) (Mok: ?)
John likes coffee but not tea. I think both are good.
Few have ever disobeyed him and lived.
Fewer are smoking these days.
Many have come already.
I'm sure that others have tried before us.
They all complained and several left the meeting.
They say that vegetables are good for you. (Mok: ?)
# Examples are from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns-indefinite.htm.
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11.2.5
Relative Pronouns 關係代名詞
11.2.5.1 A relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another
phrase or clause in a sentence. It is called a “relative” pronoun because it
“relates” to the word or phrase that it modifies. Eg.

The person who phoned me last night is my friend.
Here, who relates to and modifies “the person” by introducing the relative clause
“(who) phoned me last night.”
The relative pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, that, where, when, and
why. The compounds whoever, whomever, and whichever are also relative
pronouns.
Who (subject), whoever (subject), whom (object) and whomever (object) are
generally only for people. Whose is for possession. Which and whichever are
for things. That can be used for people** and things and as subject and object.
Where is for place; when for time; and why for explanation and reasons.
11.2.5.2 2 types of clauses: defining (restrictive) relative clause and
non-defining (non-restrictive) relative clauses. In both types of clauses
the relative pronoun can function as a subject, an object, or a possessive.
11.2.5.2.1
Relative pronouns in defining clauses
11.2.5.2.1.1 Defining relative clauses provide some essential information
that explains the main clause. The information is crucial for understanding
the sentence correctly and cannot be omitted. Defining clauses are opened
by a relative pronoun and ARE NOT separated by a comma from the main
clause.
The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in defining clauses:
Function in
the
People
sentence
Reference to
Things / concepts
Subject
who, whoever, that
which, that
Object
(that, who, whom,
whomever)
(which, whichever,
that)
Place Time Reason
where when why
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Possessive whose
whose, of which
11.2.5.2.1.2
Examples:
11.2.5.2.1.2.1
Relative pronoun used as a subject:

This is the house which / that had a great Christmas decoration.

It took me a while to get used to people who / that eat pop-corn during the
movie.

The café which / that sells the best coffee in town has recently been closed.
(The relative pronoun that can only be used in defining clauses. It can also be

substituted for who (referring to persons) or which (referring to things). That
is often used in speech; who and which are more common in written English.)
Whoever wants it can have it.
11.2.5.2.1.2.2

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Relative pronoun used as an object:
The library didn't have the book which / that I wanted.
I didn't like the book which / that John gave me.
(when referring to a person or thing, the relative pronoun may be omitted in
the object position. So in these two examples, the relative pronoun which or
that may be omitted.)
The woman to whom you have just spoken is my teacher.
She'll buy whichever is cheapest.
Give these tickets to John, or Cathy, or whomever.
Since when has she taught here?
Where does he come from?
The reason why they did it will never be known.
11.2.5.2.1.2.3
Relative pronoun used as a possessive:
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The family whose house burnt in the fire was immediately given a suite in a
hotel.

The book whose author is now being shown in the news has become a
bestseller.
(Whose is the only possessive relative pronoun in English. It can be used with
both people and things.)
11.2.5.2.2
Relative pronouns in non-defining clauses
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11.2.5.2.2.1 Non-defining relative clauses (also known as non-restrictive,
or parenthetical, clauses) provide some additional information which is not
essential and may be omitted without affecting the contents of the sentence.
All relative pronouns except “that” can be used in non-defining clauses;
however, the pronouns may not be omitted. Non-defining clauses are
separated by commas.
The table below sums up the use of relative pronouns in non-defining
clauses:
Reference to
Function in
the sentence
People
Things / concepts
Subject
who
which
Object
who, whom
which
Possessive
whose
whose, of which
11.2.5.2.2.2
where
when
why
Relative pronoun used as a subject:
Relative pronoun used as an object:
The house at the end of the street, which my grandfather built, needs
renovating.
11.2.5.2.2.2.3

Reason
The writer, who lives in this luxurious mansion, has just published his second
novel.
11.2.5.2.2.2.2
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Time
Examples:
11.2.5.2.2.2.1
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Place
Relative pronoun used as a possessive:
William Kellogg, whose name has become a famous breakfast foods
brand-name, had some weird ideas about raising children.
11.2.6
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used to ask questions. There are 4 main interrogative
pronouns: who, whom, what, which, as well as the possessive pronoun whose,
used as the interrogative possessive pronoun, and the compounds whoever,
whatever, whichever.
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The table below sums up the use of interrogative pronouns:
person
subject
object
who
whom
thing
what
person/thing
which
person
whose
(possessive)
Examples:

Who told you? (subject)

Whom did you tell? (object)
What has happened? (subject)
What do you want? (object)
Which came first? (subject)
Which will the teacher see first? (object)
There's one car missing. Whose hasn't arrived? (subject)
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We've found everyone's keys. Whose did you find? (object)
Whoever would want to do such a nasty thing? (subject)
Whatever did he say to make her cry like that? (object)
They're all fantastic! Whichever will you choose? (object)
11.2.7
Reflexive Pronouns 反身代名詞
We use a reflexive pronoun when we want to refer back to the subject of the sentence
or clause. Reflexive pronouns end in “-self” (singular) or “-selves” (plural).
In English, the 8 common reflective pronouns are myself, yourself, himself, herself,
itself, ourselves, yourselves, and themselves.
Examples:

I saw myself in the mirror.

Why do you blame yourself?
John sent himself a copy.

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
Mary bought herself a diamond ring.

My dog hurt itself.
We blame ourselves.
Can you help yourselves?
They cannot look after themselves.



11.2.8
Reciprocal Pronouns 相互代名詞
We use reciprocal pronouns when each of two or more subjects is acting in the
same way towards the other. For example, A is talking to B, and B is talking to A.
So we say:

A and B are talking to each other.
The action is “reciprocated.” John talks to Mary and Mary talks to John. I give you
a present and you give me a present. The dog bites the cat and the cat bites the dog.
There are only 2 reciprocal pronouns, and they are both two words:
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each other
one another
When we use these reciprocal pronouns:
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there must be two or more people, things or groups involved (so we cannot
use reciprocal pronouns with I, you [singular], he/she/it), and
they must be doing the same thing
Examples:
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John and Mary love each other.
Peter and David hate each other.
The ten prisoners were all blaming one another.
Both teams played hard against each other.
We gave each other gifts.
Why don't you believe each other?
They can't see each other.
The gangsters were fighting one another.
The boats were bumping against each other in the storm.
In general, we use each other more often than one another. Some people say that
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we should use one another only for three or more people or things, and each other
for two people or things.
Adapted from http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns-reciprocal.htm
11.3 Pronouns and Determiners
Pronouns and determiners are closely related, and some linguists think pronouns are
actually determiners without a noun or a noun phrase. The following chart shows their
relationships in English.
Pronoun
Determiner
we
we Chinese
Possessive
ours
our freedom
Demonstrative
this
Indefinite
some
some books
Interrogative
who
which person
Personal (1st / 2nd)
this book
11.4 Pronoun Case
There are only 3 pronoun cases.
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subjective case (they act as the subject)
objective case (they act as the object)
possessive case (they show possession of something else)
The following table shows the different forms for pronouns depending on case.
subjective case objective case
personal pronouns
singular 1st
plural
possessive
case
I
me
mine
2nd
you
you
yours
3rd
he
she
it
him
her
it
his
hers
its
1st
we
us
ours
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2nd
you
you
yours
3rd
they
them
theirs
who
whom
whose
whoever
whomever
relative/interrogative
pronouns
which/that/what which/that/what
indefinite pronouns
everybody
everybody
everybody's
11.5 Some problems of pronouns and pronoun cases.
11.5.1
Mary and I or Mary and me?
1. Mary and I are delighted to be here today. (NOT Mary and me)
2. The letter was addressed to Mary and me. (NOT Mary and I)
In 1, Mary and I are subjects, which is why the pronoun takes the subjective case
“I.” In 2, Mary and me are objects, which is why the pronoun takes the objective
case “me.” An easy way to check the correct case is to try the sentence without Mary.
Would you say “I am delighted to be here” or “Me am delighted to be here”? Would
you say “The letter was addressed to me” or “The letter was addressed to I”?
11.5.2.
In comparisons.
Comparisons usually follow than or as:
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He is taller than I (am tall). (NOT He is taller than me.)
This helps you as much as (it helps) me. (NOT This helps you as much as I.)
She is as noisy as I (am). (NOT She is as noisy as me.)
Comparisons are really shorthand sentences which usually omit words, such as
those in the parentheses in the sentences above. If you complete the comparison in
your head, you can choose the correct case for the pronoun.
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11.5.3.
In formal and semiformal writing.
Use the subjective form after a form of the verb to be.
Formal: It is I.
Informal: It is me.
Use whom in the objective case.
Formal: To whom am I talking?
Informal: Who am I talking to?
11.5.4 Everybody, anybody, everyone, anyone, each, neither, either, neither of,
either of, neither…nor, either…or, nobody, someone, a person.
There are debates among linguists in the use of singular or plural verb, singular or
plural pronoun after these indefinite pronouns / indefinite adjectives. Here is my
position on some of these:
11.5.4.1
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After neither and either you use a singular verb. Eg.
Neither was selected for the job.
I don't think either school is stronger than the other.
11.5.4.2 Neither of and either of are followed by a singular verb and a plural
noun or pronoun.
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Neither of my parents lives with me. They live out of town.
Either of them is correct.
11.5.4.3 Neither…nor, either…or are followed by a singular verb or a plural
verb, depending on the subject (singular or plural) closest to the conjugated verb.
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Neither Helen nor Lily lives in Hong Kong. (second subject singular)
Neither Frank nor my other friends care about their future. (second subject
plural)
Either Phil or Opera is coming. (second subject singular)
Either Peter or the girls need to attend the seminar. (second subject plural)
11.5.4.4 Everybody, everyone, anybody, anyone are followed by a singular
verb and a plural pronoun.

Everybody loves Raymond, but Raymond doesn’t love them.
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
If everyone hands in their assignments on time, they will likely do well in the
exam.
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If anybody is interested, we will go for the movie tonight.
How can I know if anyone is stealing the money here?

11.5.5 For a single person, sometimes we don't know whether to use he or she.
There are several solutions to this:
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
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If a teacher needs help, he or she should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, he should see the principal.
If a teacher needs help, they should see the principal.
11.5.6. ** Some people say that “none” should always take a singular verb, even
when talking about countable nouns (eg. five friends). They argue that “none”
means “no one,” and “one” is obviously singular. They say that “I invited five
friends but none has come” is correct and “I invited five friends but none have
come” is incorrect. Historically and grammatically there is little to support this
view. “None” has been used for hundreds of years with both a singular and a plural
verb, according to the context and the emphasis required.
11.5.7.
*** When referring to people, both that and who can be used. That may
be used to refer to someone in general, and when a particular person is being
spoken about, who is preferred. Some people claim that we cannot use that for
people but must use who/whom; there is no good reason for such a claim.
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