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Honors Biology
Study Guide – Semester 2 Final Exam
Nordstrom
This is a list of questions meant to guide you in reviewing your notes for the final exam. They cover all the
main concepts covered this semester. You should start reviewing as soon as possible and do your best to
answer all the questions. You should mark only the questions you have difficulty answering and ask them in
class on review day.
Cell Reproduction
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Explain why a cell’s SA/V ratio affects its metabolism and helps determine when it needs to divide. Refer
to specific cell structures (plasma membrane, cytoplasm) and processes (cell transport, metabolism).
What are the phases of the cell cycle? What happens in each one? Which phases make up
mitosis/karyokinesis?
Describe the appearance / form of the DNA in each stage of the cell cycle; if chromosomes, specify if they
are double stranded or single stranded.
Where is the kinetochore found in a chromosome and what is its function?
In which stages of the cell cycle can transcription happen?
Explain the difference between the two Gap phases, G1 and G2.
What is karyokinesis?
What is a centrosome and what is its role in cell division?
What are the two types of spindle fibers? What role do spindle fibers play in cell division? Where do they
attach to chromosomes?
What must any cell do before going through cell division (reproduction)? Why are the chromosomes
double stranded at the beginning of cell division but not at the end of division?
All somatic cells have identical DNA because they originated from a single zygote through mitosis. Name
and explain the process that is needed to create different tissues/cell types in a multicellular organism.
Compare mitosis to meiosis: which is used for tissue repair and maintenance, growth, and development of
the organism? Which is used for sexual reproduction? How many cells are made from one parent cell?
Are the daughter cells diploid or haploid? How many times is the DNA replicated and why?
How do gametes differ from somatic cells? Why?
List three events in meiosis that create genetic diversity/variation between cells (i.e., explain why you are
different from your siblings, assuming you are not an identical twin). How does fertilization contribute to
genetic diversity?
What is a katyotype and how is it used to diagnose chromosomal abnormalities? How many of each
chromosome do you have in your body (somatic cells)? In your gametes? Why?
Which chromosomes are autosomes and which are sex chromosomes? How many of each is in a diploid
cell? Haploid cell? How is the gender of a baby determined?
Suppose a sexually reproducing insect has 40 chromosomes in its somatic cells. How many chromosomes
will be in its gametes? How many chromosomes will be in the somatic cells of its offspring?
Why are males more prone to have sex-linked genetic diseases such as hemophilia?
What is parthenogenesis? What are the advantages and disadvantages of asexual reproduction?
Genes and cells can be cloned. Explain what cloning is and how it is done.
List three possible benefits of cloning (individuals or genes/molecular level cloning).
The possibility of cloning humans has generated some ethical concerns. Explain why.
Genetics
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What is genetics?
What is a trait? How are traits related to genes? What is an allele?
How does the expression of a dominant trait differ from that of a recessive trait?
What is the difference between a purebred (homozygous) and a hybrid (heterozygous) organism?
Explain the difference between genotype and phenotype. Give an example of a phenotype that can have
more than one genotype. Give an example of a phenotype that can only have one genotype.
6. Who was Gregor Mendel and how did he study the inheritance of traits? What organisms did he use in his
experiments?
7. List Mendel’s three laws. What stages in meiosis coincide with/explain each law?
8. Who was Walter Sutton and what theory did he formulate? Explain his theory.
9. Explain the law of dominance. Give an example using one the traits from class or from your book.
10. Explain the law of segregation. Give an example using one of the traits used in class or from your reading.
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Honors Biology
Study Guide – Semester 2 Final Exam
Nordstrom
11. Explain the law of independent assortment. Explain how two traits might be independently assorted into
different gametes. Does independent assortment happen as expected if the genes for the two traits are
located on the same chromosome? What is the term for genes located on the same chromosome?
12. What is a Punnett square and what is it used for? Explain the difference between a monohybrid cross and a
dihybrid cross.
13. How is a test cross used to find out the genotype of an organism?
14. What are pedigrees and what are they used for?
15. If a pedigree does not show the genotypes for each individual, how / when can you determine for sure if the
pedigree is for a recessive or dominant trait?
16. What is codominance? Incomplete dominance? Give an example of each.
17. What is the difference between a polygenic trait and a trait with multiple alleles?
18. What is an example of a recessive genetic disorder? How is it inherited? Possible genotypes?
19. What is an example of a dominant genetic disorder? How is it inherited? Possible genotypes?
20. How does a sex-influenced trait differ from a sex-linked trait? Give an example of each trait.
Evolution
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Briefly explain the main ideas in origin-of-life theories that attempt to explain 1) how the first cells may
have evolved, 2) how organelles may have evolved later, and 3) how multicellular organisms may have
evolved.
List these in proper chronological order given the current theories you just reviewed: first eukaryotes, first
cells/prokaryotes, first autotrophs (cyanobacteria), aerobic metabolism, colonial organisms, multicellular
organisms.
List these in proper evolutionary order according to the fossil record: amphibians, mammals & birds, fish,
reptiles, humans, dinosaurs.
What does evolution mean? What is the mechanism of evolution?
Who was Charles Darwin and what did he do? What other scientist also inferred the mechanism of
evolution but gave Darwin the credit for it?
What is an adaptation? Can an organism produce an adaptation when it’s needed? How do adaptations
arise?
What is a transitional form and where can it be found?
List three types of evidence for evolution and explain why scientists infer evolutionary change and
relationships from them.
Explain the three/four factors that lead to natural selection and how this results in evolution.
What is being selected for or against in the process of natural selection?
Give one example of how we can observe natural selection happening today.
What is speciation?
Draw a simple phylogenetic tree showing divergent evolution. How is adaptive radiation a special case of
divergent evolution?
What is convergent evolution? How are sharks and dolphins an example of this?
What are analogous and homologous structures and how do they differ? What kind of evolution results in
each type of structure?
What is coevolution and how does it relate to symbiosis? Give two examples of coevolution.
Compare and contrast gradualism and punctuated equilibrium. Which did Darwin originally propose?
How does geographic isolation affect speciation? Can speciation happen without geographic isolation?
How?
What are the two main sources of genetic variation? Why is variation within populations important in
natural selection?
Do species always evolve when environments change?
Compare stabilizing and disruptive selection. How do they differ? Which one may result in divergent
evolution of a species?
Classification
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List the taxa in proper order from the most encompassing to the most specific: class, kingdom, family,
species, genus, order, domain
2. Which have more characteristics in common, two species in the same order or two species in the same
phylum?
3. What is a species?
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What is the proper way to write the scientific name of a species?
Who created modern taxonomy?
Explain the 6-kingdom classification system. What are the two domains? What are the 6 kingdoms?
Sort the kingdoms based on trophism, cell type (pro- vs. eukaryotic), and cellular organization
(uni/multicellular).
How is a dichotomous key used to classify organisms?
How does a cladogram differ from a phylogenetic tree?
Bacteria & Viruses / Disease & Immunity
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Why is a virus not alive? Can viruses evolve?
Draw a virus and label the nucleic acid, the capsid, the envelope, and the surface protein/spikes. Which
structure is not found in all viruses and where does it come from? What is the function of the spikes?
Draw a typical bacterial cell showing the nucleic acid (chromosome and plasmids), cell membrane, cell
wall, pilli, flagella.
How do bacteria reproduce?
What is conjugation? What gets exchanged during conjugation? What advantage does it provide?
What are endospores? What is their use to bacteria?
Explain how sterile technique is used in the lab when growing bacteria.
If a Petri dish is streaked for isolation and paper discs containing chemicals are placed on it, a ring of
inhibition may form around some of the discs. What does that mean?
Explain the difference between an antibiotic, an antiseptic, and a disinfectant.
How do microbiologists identify and classify bacteria?
How do viruses get replicated? Explain the difference between the lytic cycle and the lysogenic cycle.
What is a provirus (eg. prophage)?
Can a virus infect any cell type in its host? How are viruses grown/cultured in the lab?
List five diseases caused by viruses. What viral disease has been eradicated in the U.S. but not in all other
countries? What human viral disease has been completely eradicated?
What is a prion and how does it cause disease?
What is a viroid made of and what kind of disease does it cause?
List five diseases caused by bacteria.
How is HIV transmitted? How does a retrovirus such as HIV differ from other viruses?
Explain the difference between an infectious disease and a non-infectious disease.
What does contagious mean?
How are diseases transmitted? What can we do to avoid spreading diseases?
What is a pathogen and how does it cause disease?
What is a disease vector?
What is a disease outbreak?
What is the difference between endemic, epidemic, and pandemic disease?
What defenses do our bodies have against diseases?
Compare and contrast, then give examples of each: active vs. passive immunity; specific vs. nonspecific
immunity; antibody/humoral vs. cell-mediate immune reaction/response.
List three main organs/parts of the immune system and their functions. Where are immune cells made?
Where do T cells mature and what is their function (two types)? Where do B cells mature and what is their
function?
What kind of cell first identifies a pathogen and presents it to a helper T cell? What is the role of the helper
T cell in an immune response?
Can someone make any type of antibody to bind to any antigen? Do we have T cells that recognize and
attack any type of antigen? How is our “arsenal” of specific receptors and antibodies limited?
Fungi
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Define a fungus with regard to cell type, trophism, and growth pattern. What substance is found in the cell
walls of fungi but not in slime molds?
What is the main role of fungi in nature? How do they affect us?
What are hyphae, mycelia, fruiting bodies, and spores?
How are fungi classified into divisions (phyla)? List the divisions and their main characteristics.
Which fungi are unicellular and can reproduce by budding?
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Honors Biology
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Study Guide – Semester 2 Final Exam
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List three diseases of plants caused by fungi. List three human diseases caused by fungi. Classify these
into divisions using your chart/notes.
How do fungi reproduce? Which fungi are not known to reproduce sexually?
List the reproductive structures for the four divisions in your chart.
Label the parts of a mushroom showing where spores are made.
Label the parts of a common mold.
What is the difference between sexually produced and asexually produced spores? When does it matter
most?
How do fungi digest their food?
List and describe two types of symbiotic relationships between fungi and photosynthetic organisms.
Protists
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How do protists differ from bacteria? How are protists thought to have evolved?
What are the three main categories of protists? Describe the cell type, growth patterns, and trophism for
the three categories of protists.
3. Why are protists not classified as plants, fungi, or animals?
4. How do protists provide us with information about the evolution of plants, animals, and fungi?
5. How do protists affect humans? Give specific examples of useful and harmful organisms from each
category and explain how they affect us.
6. How are the three categories of protists classified into phyla? List the protozoa, algae, and slime mold
phyla and name one organism from each phylum. For diseases, identify the organism that cause malaria,
sleeping sickness, amoebiasis, and giardiasis and give their phylum.
7. How do protozoa, algae, and slime molds reproduce asexually? Sexually? Review the specific examples
of conjugation in Paramecium and Spyrogyra and the alternation of generations in multicellular algae.
8. Why are diseases caused by protozoa harder to treat/cure than bacterial diseases?
9. Describe the life cycle of the malaria parasite and name its vector.
10. Explain the roles of protists in food webs and in the carbon-oxygen cycle.
11. Some protozoa such as amoebas form cysts. What are cysts and what is their function?
Plants
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What is a plant and what is its role in nature? Define plants in terms of trophism, cell type, and their role in
food chains.
2. What kingdom do plants belong to and how is it evolutionarily related to other kingdoms? Which kingdom
are plants thought to have evolved from? From which organisms?
3. How are plants adapted to live on land? Compare and contrast plants and multicellular green algae in terms
of trophism, cell type, habitat and reproduction. What structures are found in plants and not in their
ancestors?
4. What is the importance of plants to people? List three beneficial uses and three harmful effects of plants.
5. How are plants classified?
6. Explain the differences between vascular and nonvascular plants and they affect the appearance, structure,
and function of plants.
7. What cell/tissue types make up the vascular system and what are their functions? Explain how the two
types of vascular tissue differ. Name the cells of the vascular system in angiosperms and gymnosperms.
8. Review cross sections of dicot and monocot stems, leaves, and roots. Make sure you can find the dermal,
ground, and vascular tissues.
9. Explain the difference between seed plants and nonseed plants (the two types of vascular plants). How are
seeds produced? Do all seed plants have flowers and fruits?
10. What is a fruit and where does it come from? Which seed plants have fruits?
11. Where do we find the seeds in a conifer/gymnosperm?
12. How does a seed differ from a spore?
13. List the parts of a flower and their functions. What is pollination and how does it allow for sexual
reproduction in flowering plants?
14. What are the two main groups of flowering plants and how are they different from each other? Compare
leaf, root, and flower structure. Give two examples of each group.
15. Explain why flowering plants are the most successful/widespread plants.
16. How do nonseed, vascular plants reproduce sexually?
17. How do nonvascular plants reproduce sexually?
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Honors Biology
Study Guide – Semester 2 Final Exam
Nordstrom
18. List three different ways plants can reproduce asexually. Which ones are naturally occurring and which are
used by humans?
19. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction in plants? Asexual reproduction?
20. Give two examples each of plants that are vascular, nonvascular, seed, nonseed, flowering and
nonflowering. Use the terms angiosperm and gymnosperm. Which vascular plants do not make seeds?
21. Explain the term alternation of generations. What is the difference between a gametophyte and a
sporophyte? How do these structures differ in nonvascular plants, vascular seedless plants, and vascular
seed plants?
22. Review the alternation of generations diagrams in your notes – identify the haploid and diploid stages and
compare and contrast the lower plants (ferns and mosses) to the higher plants (angiosperms and
gymnosperms).
23. Which plants have separate generations (gametophyte/sporophyte) and which have generations that are
“fused” together?
24. Where to we find the gametophyte in a flowering plant? A cone plant?
25. Are most plants you see outdoors sporophytes or gametophytes?
26. What type of plant has a gametophyte that is cute, fuzzy, and more noticeable than the sporophyte?
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