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CHAPTER 8
THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE
“In Freedom we're born, and like Sons of the brave, Will never surrender, . . .”
Mercy Otis Warren
American writer Mercy Otis Warren. See picture page 230.
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Link to Our World
What might give one side an advantage over the other in a war today?
Focus on the Main Idea
As you read, think about what gave the British army an advantage over the Continental
army as the war began.
Preview Vocabulary
olive branch
Continental
Mercenary
enlist
The Committees of Correspondence quickly spread the news of the fighting at Lexington
and Concord. A second Continental Congress was called, and it met in Philadelphia in
May 1775. Some of the most important colonial leaders went to the meeting to decide
what to do now that a battle had been fought. Pennsylvania sent Benjamin Franklin.
Massachusetts sent John Hancock, Samuel Adams, and John Adams. Virginia sent George
Washington and the fiery Patrick Henry.
THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS
The Second Continental Congress moved carefully. The Patriots sent a letter called the
Olive Branch Petition to King George III, telling him of their desire for peace and asking
him to repeal the Intolerable Acts. An olive branch has stood for peace since ancient
times. But in case the king refused to repeal the laws, the Second Continental Congress
decided to form a colonial army.
The Congress asked all the colonies to send soldiers to Massachusetts. It chose George
Washington of Virginia to lead this new Continental army. Washington, who had fought
in the French and Indian War, came to the meeting in uniform to show that he would like
to be the army's general. But it was Washington's understanding of soldiers and war that
helped him to be chosen instead of such leaders as Artemas Ward, Charles Lee, or John
Hancock.
The Second Continental Congress asked each colony
to give money to support the new army. The money was
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This scene of colonial Philadelphia shows the intersection of Second and Market. Thomas
Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence here in a room he rented on the corner.
See picture top left of page 232.
Philadelphia See map top right of page 232.
Philadelphia calls itself "The Most Historic City in America"—and with good reason. It
first earned its place in history in 1774, when the Continental Congress met in Carpenters'
Hall, in the city's center. Over the next 30 years, many of the most important events in
American history took place in Philadelphia.
needed to pay full-time soldiers and buy guns, bullets, food, and uniforms. The Congress
also voted to print its own paper money, which came to be known as Continental
currency.
In everything it did, the Congress seemed to believe the words of Patrick Henry "The
distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers are no more," he said. "I
am not a Virginian but an American." The Second Continental Congress came to stand for
the new unity of the 13 colonies.
Why did colonial leaders call a second meeting of the Continental Congress?
THE CONTINENTAL ARMY
George Washington left Philadelphia right away to take charge of his army, which had
already fought its first major battle. The Battle of Bunker Hill, which took place in Boston
on June 17, 1775, was among the fiercest battles of the whole war. It was so fierce that to
save bullets, the colonists were ordered, "Don't fire until you see the whites of their eyes."
The colonists drove back the British twice before running out of bullets.
Washington arrived in Massachusetts to meet his army less than three weeks after this
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battle. The 14,000 soldiers, mostly from the northern colonies, wore no uniforms—only
their ordinary clothes. Those who had guns carried flintlock muskets, which could not be
used to shoot very far. Many of the soldiers had no guns at all. Instead, they carried spears
and axes as weapons.
Some of Washington's soldiers had fought on the frontier and in the French and Indian
War. They had learned to fight the way the Native Americans did—in irregular lines and
from hiding—not the way a European army would. In fact, they had never fought as an
army. Washington made rules for them and trained them. He punished soldiers who did
not obey his orders. Slowly, Washington created the beginning of an army whose soldiers
were proud to be called Continentals.
With little money and not much training, the Continentals went to war against the most
powerful army in the world. Later, an officer would report, "It is incredible that soldiers
composed of men of every age, even children of fifteen, of whites and blacks, almost
naked, unpaid, and rather poorly fed, can march so well and withstand fire so steadfastly"
What was the Continental army like when Washington took charge?
THE BRITISH ADVANTAGE
Unlike George Washington's army of mostly first-time soldiers, the British army was
made up of professional soldiers. They had the best training, the most experienced
officers, and the newest weapons. They also had help. The British used mercenaries,
or hired soldiers, to fight on their side. These soldiers were Hessians, from the Hesse
The artist and soldier Charles Willson Peale painted this portrait of George Washington at
the Battle of Trenton. See picture left side of page 233.
Timothy Pickering of the Salem militia created this plan to show Continental soldiers
basic marching steps. Unlike the British force, the Continental army had little formal
training. See picture right side of page 233.
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This scene at the Battle of Bunker Hill in 1775 was painted by Howard Pyle. Although the
British eventually took the hill, their way of marching in straight lines during an attack
caused more than 1,000 British soldiers to be killed or wounded. See picture page 234.
region of Germany. The British also had Indian allies. Many tribes hated the colonists
because settlers had taken over Indian lands.
But the British had problems, too. It was hard to fight a war 3,000 miles (4,828 km) from
home. They had trouble getting supplies across the Atlantic Ocean. They also had political
problems at home.
In the early days of the war, the British used their greater numbers and experience as
fighters to take the advantage. While the British had 50,000 soldiers, General Washington
usually had no more than 10,000 soldiers in his army at any one time. Most of the
Americans enlisted in, or joined, the army for one year at a time. They might stay that
long or longer, or they might not. When harvest time came, some of the Continentals
would go home to their farms. If they did not get their pay as soldiers, they could not stay
in the army. Washington did his best to keep his army together.
How was the British army different from the Continental army?
Check Understanding
1. Recall the Facts What actions did the Second Continental Congress take?
2. Focus on the Main Idea What gave the British army an advantage over the Continental
army as the war began?
Think Critically
3. Personally Speaking What do you think might have happened if the British king had
accepted the Olive Branch Petition?
4. Think More About It George Washington overcame many problems in leading his
soldiers against the British army. What qualities should a good leader have?
Show What You Know
Poster Activity Make a poster calling for soldiers to join the Continental army to fight the
British. Compare your poster with those of your classmates.
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Read a Political Cartoon
Why Is This Skill Important?
Cartoons can make you laugh. They can tell a story. They also can have deeper meanings
behind their humor. Many cartoons give opinions about something. Cartoons that express
opinions about politics or government are called political cartoons. Political
cartoons are most often found in newspapers and magazines. Knowing how to read a
political cartoon will help you understand its humor and its meaning.
The First American Political Cartoon
See cartoon page 235.
Benjamin Franklin drew the cartoon shown on this page. It may have been the first
American political cartoon. It appeared in the Pennsylvania Gazette in 1754. Franklin was
representing the Pennsylvania colony at the Albany Congress in New York. At this
meeting he presented a "Plan of Union" for the colonies. He hoped his cartoon would
make colonial leaders want to unite.
Franklin used his cartoon to urge colonists to support his plan for a union. The snake in
the cartoon stands for all of the colonies. Each piece of the snake represents one of the
colonies. The saying "Join, or Die" was based on an old tale about snakes. This story said
that a snake that was cut into pieces would come to life again if it was put back together
before sunset. Benjamin Franklin wanted the pieces of the snake—the colonies—to come
together to survive.
Understand the Process
In his cartoon, Benjamin Franklin used the snake as a symbol. Symbols are a good way to
show ideas that are sometimes hard to draw in a picture—ideas such as unity among the
colonies. The use of symbols can make the message of a political cartoon easier to
understand.
Animals are often used as symbols for ideas in political cartoons. The eagle is often used
to represent the idea of freedom. The dove stands for the idea of peace. The hawk stands
for war. The snail is used as a symbol of slowness.
To understand the meaning of a political cartoon, you first need to identify the symbols
that are used. Then you need to think about the ideas that the symbols stand for.
Think and Apply
Make a booklet of symbols used in political cartoons both past and present. Draw each
symbol, and write a short paragraph to explain its meaning. Make up a symbol of your
own to add to the booklet.
Franklin hoped this cartoon would help unite the colonies. It represents all the colonies
except Delaware and Georgia. See cartoon page 235.
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Lesson 2
The Decision for INDEPENDENCE
Link to Our World
Why is it important for leaders today to explain the reasons for their decisions?
Focus on the Main Idea
As you read, think about why it was important for colonial leaders to explain their
decision to break free from British rule.
Preview Vocabulary
revolution
declaration
independence
grievance
allegiance
Although they were already at war, many colonists still believed that their problems with
the British government could be settled without more fighting. They hoped the king and
Parliament would let them take part in making the laws. By 1776 that thinking began to
change, and the colonists prepared for a longer war.
THE FIRST STEPS
One of the Patriots who did the most to change the colonists' way of thinking was Thomas
Paine. In January 1776 Paine published a pamphlet he called Common Sense. In it he
attacked King George III as a bully and questioned the idea of one person having all the
authority to rule. Paine felt that people should rule themselves. He called for a sudden,
complete change of government—a revolution (rev•uh•LOO•shuhn). The colonies
should cut their ties with the British government, he said, and set up their own
government.
Everyone in the colonies talked about Common Sense. After nearly a year of war, the idea
of independence, or freedom to govern on one's own, sounded good to many
colonists. It also sounded good to many members of the Second Continental Congress.
The time to act had come. On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia gave a speech
to Congress. He said that "these United Colonies are and of right ought to be free and
independent States." He went on to say that the colonies no longer owed allegiance
(uh•LEE•juhnts), or loyalty, to the king.
In Britain, Thomas Paine lost his job as a tax collector after asking for a raise. Benjamin
Franklin, who was in London at the time, suggested that Paine go to America. See picture
page 236.
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Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson at work on the Declaration. See
picture page 237.
Jefferson's travel desk (left) holds his first draft of the Declaration of Independence. This
early copy (above) shows the many changes Jefferson made as he wrote the document.
See pictures page 237.
The Congress waited almost a month before voting on the idea of cutting ties with the
British government. Not all of the colonies were ready for independence. The
representatives of seven or eight of the colonies would have voted for the idea in June.
But at least three of the colonies would have voted against it, and one or two others were
unsure. They needed more time before taking such a dangerous step. The leaders of the
Congress hoped that a month's wait would help all 13 colonies decide in favor of
independence. In the meantime, they formed a committee to draw up a declaration, or
official statement, of independence.
The members of the committee were Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, John Adams of
Massachusetts, Robert R. Livingston of New York, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, and
Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. Each member added ideas about what the Declaration
should say. But Jefferson did most of the writing.
Only 33 years old, Thomas Jefferson was a leader of the Patriots in Virginia. He was a
lawyer, he had studied government, and he had already written about the problems with
British rule. Two years before, he had written A Summary View of the Rights of British
America, in which he had listed for the first Continental Congress the changes the
colonies wanted in their government. When the Declaration committee was selected,
Jefferson began work at once. Every evening for the next 17 days, Jefferson wrote—and
rewrote —the document that would become the Declaration of Independence.
Why did Congress wait before voting on independence?
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WRITING THE DECLARATION
Thomas Jefferson wanted his words to help the colonists win their war for freedom. He
wrote very carefully. He had to state the facts so that people would agree that the cause
for independence was right, and that it was worth fighting for.
Jefferson planned the Declaration in several parts. In the introduction, he stated why the
Declaration was needed. He said that sometimes a group of people must cut themselves
off from the country they once belonged to. They find they have no choice but to form a
new nation with the same authority as other independent countries. Jefferson said that
when people do this, they must have good reasons. And, he said, they must explain their
reasons so there is no doubt about why such a step is taken.
In the second part of the Declaration, Jefferson listed the colonists' main ideas about
government. The words he wrote in 1776 are among the most famous in American
history. Jefferson said:
“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are
endowed [provided] by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are
Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness.”
In the third and longest part of the Declaration, Jefferson listed the colonists'
grievances (GREE•vuhns•es), or complaints, about the unfair things that the king and
Parliament had done. He also listed the ways
John Trumbull's painting of the signing of the Declaration of Independence shows 48
members of the Second Continental Congress. The delegates met in Pennsylvania's State
House, known today as Independence Hall. See picture page 238.
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Independence Day
On July 4, 1776, the Second Continental Congress approved the Declaration of
Independence. After the vote, the president of the Congress, John Hancock, signed his
name to the document in large, bold writing. John Adams, writing home to his wife,
Abigail, said that the event should be remembered with shows, games, sports, guns, bells,
bonfires, and fireworks "from this time forward forever more." Americans have celebrated
the Fourth of July, or Independence Day, as a national holiday ever since.
On July 8, 1776, Patriots rang the Liberty Bell in Philadelphia's State House to celebrate
the adoption of the Declaration of Independence. The bell was rung each year after that
until it cracked in 1835. The words written on the bell, "Proclaim Liberty throughout all
the land unto all the inhabitants thereof," are from the Bible. See picture page 239.
the colonists had tried to settle their differences with the British government peacefully.
But, he noted, the king had refused to listen to the colonists. Such a king, Jefferson wrote,
was "unfit to be the ruler of a free people."
Then, in the last part of the Declaration, Jefferson wrote that for all of the reasons he had
described, the 13 colonies were no longer a part of Great Britain.
“We therefore, . . . in the Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies,
solemnly publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be
Free and Independent States. . . .”
When he finished writing, Jefferson gave the Declaration to Congress, and on June 28 it
was read aloud. Then the members returned to Richard Henry Lee's idea of cutting ties
with Britain. On the morning of July 2, 1776, Lee's idea was approved without a single no
vote. The Congress spent the next two days talking about the Declaration. After several
small changes were made, it was approved on July 4, 1776. The 13 colonies had declared
independence.
What did Jefferson describe in the longest part of the Declaration of Independence?
LESSON 2 REVIEW
Check Understanding
1. Recall the Facts What were the main parts of the Declaration of Independence? What
was the purpose of each part?
2. Focus on the Main Idea Why was it important for colonial leaders to explain their
decision to break free from British rule?
Think Critically
3. Think More About It Why do you think Jefferson was asked to write the Declaration of
Independence?
4. Personally Speaking What do you think Jefferson meant when he wrote, "all men are
created equal"?
5. Past to Present Why do you think the Declaration is still important today?
Show What You Know
Simulation Activity With a partner, act out a conversation between two colonists
discussing the Declaration of Independence. The first colonist is a Loyalist. The second is
a Patriot. Try to make each side of the argument as real as you can. Discuss your
conversation with classmates.
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Lesson 3
AMERICANS TAKE SIDES
Link to Our World
How do people's experiences affect the decisions they make?
Focus on the Main Idea
As you read, think about how people's experiences affected their decisions to take sides in
the American Revolution.
Preview Vocabulary
neutral
encroach
pacifist
regiment
movement
After the Declaration of Independence was signed, people had to decide if they would
support the rebelling colonies or the British king. Some chose to be neutral (Noo.truhl),
taking neither side. Those who were neutral were willing to accept the outcome of the
revolution, whichever way it went.
About a third of the colonists were Loyalists, and another third were Patriots. The last
third remained neutral. Friends, neighbors, and families were sometimes torn apart by the
need to choose sides. The fighting became as much a civil war as it was a war with the
British.
REVOLUTION AND THE CHURCHES
Many things affected people's views on independence. One was religion. "There is a time
to pray and a time to fight," Peter Muhlenberg, a young Lutheran minister, told his
followers. Then, before their eyes, he tore off his church robes to show the uniform of a
militia officer. His father, the colonies' Lutheran leader, was shocked—he was a Loyalist.
The Lutherans, like the people of other church groups, were divided between Patriots and
Loyalists.
Taking sides was especially hard for Anglican Church members. The British king was the
head of the Anglican Church, as the Church of England was called in the colonies. Many
Anglicans in the northern and middle colonies supported the king, while many of those in
the southern colonies worked for independence.
Button molds were used to make metal buttons for Continental army uniforms. See
picture page 240.
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Most Congregationalists, members of the largest church group in the colonies, worked for
independence, as did many northern Presbyterians and Baptists. Many southern
Presbyterians, however, were Loyalists.
Members of the Society of Friends, also called Quakers, would not fight in the war for
independence. Quakers are against all wars, because they believe that violence for any
reason is wrong. These pacifists, or believers in peaceful settlement, published
pamphlets calling for an end to the war. Loyalists and Patriots both saw pacifists as their
enemies.
How did some people's religious I beliefs affect the way they felt about
independence?
WOMEN AND THE WAR
Many women in the colonies took part in the movement, or effort by many people, to
gain freedom. When Patriot leaders asked the colonists to boycott British-made goods,
women in Boston and other colonial towns banded together to make their own goods.
Many women worked for independence in other ways.
Some women formed groups to raise money for the war and collect clothing for the
soldiers. In Lancaster, Pennsylvania, women formed a group called the Unmarried Ladies
of America. Its members promised that they would never give their hand in marriage to
any gentle- man until he had first proved himself a Patriot. Women also took part in the
fighting. Like some women, Mary Ludwig Hays traveled with her husband after he joined
the
Mary Ludwig Hays earned the name Molly Pitcher by bringing water to the troops during
the long, hot Battle of Monmouth, fought in June 1778. See picture page 241.
Phillis Wheatley 1753?-1784
See picture bottom of page 241.
When she was only five or six years old, a young African girl, probably born in the
country of Senegal, was kidnapped and enslaved. She was taken to Boston and in 1761
was sold to John Wheatley. Unlike many other slaveowners, Wheatley educated the
young girl and then freed her. Phillis Wheatley, who took the last name of her owner, was
one of the earliest American poets.
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Continental army. When her husband fell during the Battle of Monmouth, Hays took over
the firing of his cannon. Mary Slocumb rode through thick forests at night to join her
husband and other members of the North Carolina militia. She fought with them in the
Battle of Moore's Creek Bridge.
In Boston, Phillis Wheatley wrote poems that were praised by George Washington. She
used her mind to champion the independence movement. So did Mercy Otis Warren. She
wrote a play that made fun of the British and supported the Patriots.
Patriot Abigail Adams wanted to be sure that independence would be good for women as
well as men. She wrote to her husband, John:
“If particular care and attention are not paid to the ladies we are determined to foment
[start] rebellion and will not hold ourselves bound to obey any laws in which we have no
voice or representation.”
Not all women were Patriots. There were Loyalist women in every colony. Some of them
fought for the British. Many others brought them food and supplies.
How did women on both sides take part in the Revolution?
NATIVE AMERICANS AND THE WAR
"We have heard of the unhappy differences and great contention betwixt you and Old
England," an Oneida chief is said to have told a Patriot. "We cannot meddle in this dispute
between two brothers. . . . Should the great king of England apply to us for aid, we shall
decline him; if the colonies apply to us, we shall refuse."
Over the years native peoples had grown angry with both the American colonists and the
British. Settlers from both sides continued to encroach on traditional Indian lands,
moving onto them without asking. By 1776 the land between the Appalachian Mountains
and the Mississippi River was being taken over by Europeans, despite the Proclamation of
1763, which forbid settlement there.
Francis Marion, known as the "Swamp Fox," led Continental soldiers through southern
swamps as they defended the South against the British. Africans fought in Marion's militia
and other companies during the war. See picture page 242.
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Yet many Native Americans had come to depend on Europeans as trading partners. For
this reason the Patriots hoped that the Indians would at least stay out of the war, even if
they would not fight for them. The British, however, promised to give the Indians guns
and other European goods if they agreed to help the British army. Many tribes in the Ohio
River valley, so often at war with each other, made peace in order "to assist His Majesty's
troops." Other tribes, however, were divided. In the Hudson River valley, some of the
Iroquois fought for the Patriots. Others decided to fight for the British.
Most Indians, however, stayed out of the fighting. When asked to take sides, one
Cherokee chief is said to have told both the colonists and the British that the Great Spirit
"has given you many advantages, but he has not created us to be your slaves. We are a
separate people!"
What view did most Indians take about the fighting?
AFRICANS AND THE WAR
At the start of the war, free Africans were as quick to take sides as their European
neighbors. Peter Salem was among at least five Africans who fought at Concord with the
Minutemen. A few weeks later he and other Africans, both free and enslaved, fought at
the Battle of Bunker Hill in Boston. More than 5,000 Africans fought in the Continental
army during the Revolutionary War.
Enslaved Africans who enlisted in the Continental army were promised freedom after the
war as a reward. Many were so filled with ideas of freedom and liberty that they changed
their names. Among the names listed in army records are Cuff Freedom, Dick Freedom,
Ned Freedom, Peter Freeman, Cuff Liberty, Jeffrey Liberty, and Pomp Liberty.
The royal governor of Virginia, John Murray, Earl of Dunmore, also promised to give
enslaved Africans their freedom if they ran away from their owners and were "able and
willing to bear arms" for the British government. In a few weeks nearly 300 runaway
slaves were enlisted in the Ethiopian Regiment of the British army. A regiment is a
troop of soldiers. These soldiers wore uniforms that had patches reading Liberty to Slaves.
What promise helped some enslaved Africans decide to take sides?
LESSON 3 REVIEW
Check Understanding
1. Recall the Facts Why was the American Revolution as much a civil war as it was a war
with Britain?
2. Focus on the Main Idea How did people's experiences affect their decisions to take
sides in the American Revolution?
Think Critically
3. Explore Viewpoints Imagine that you were a Loyalist and your best friend was a Patriot
during the American Revolution. List the reasons each of you might have had to take the
sides you did.
4. Past to Present How might people who are pacifists view conflicts that are taking place
around the world today?
Show What You Know
Chart Activity Draw a chart showing the colonial groups that worked for independence
and those that remained loyal to the British government. Do some research on one group
to find out why it chose the side it did.
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See pictures pages 244-245
Lesson 4
LEARN WITH LITERATURE
Focus on Fighting for the Patriot Cause
By Richard Berleth ILLUSTRATED BY James Watling
SAMUEL’S CHOICE
Taking the side of the Patriots was a difficult decision for many people, but especially for
enslaved Africans. Thomas Jefferson had written in the Declaration of Independence that
"all men are created equal." Yet he and many other Patriot leaders owned slaves. Even if
the Patriots won their freedom from Britain, enslaved people knew that they would not
win freedom from slavery.
Read now about the choice made by a 14-year-old boy named Samuel Abraham, who was
held as a slave in Brooklyn, New York. Samuel, his friend Sana, and other slaves worked
on the farm of a Loyalist named Isaac van Ditmas. It was Samuel's job to care for Fanner
Isaac's boat and to take him and his family from place to place on New York Harbor.
In the summer of 1776, George Washington and the Continental army were forced to
retreat from Brooklyn as the British approached. In the fighting that followed, Samuel
chose to help the Patriots, carrying dozens of Patriots to safety in his boat. One of the
people he helped was Major Mordecai Gist.
When I tied the boat to the dock below the Heights, Major Gist clapped his hands on my
shoulders and looked me in the eyes. "Samuel," he said, "out in that creek you did more
than many a free man for your country. I'd take it as a privilege if you'd consent to be my
orderly and march beside me. And General Washington may need handy boatmen like
you soon enough."
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The next day it rained and rained. A thick sea fog covered the land. I looked everywhere
for Sana. Many soldiers crowded into the camp, but they could tell me nothing. Alone and
frightened, I mended the holes in my sail, pushing the big needle through the canvas,
drawing it back again. Then, I heard voices nearby.
Major Gist stood there with an officer in a fine blue uniform. They asked me how deep
the water was at this point between Brooklyn and Manhattan. They wanted to know if a
British ship could sail between the two places. I told them that most ships could. Only the
fog was keeping the British men-of-war from trapping Washington's army on Long
Island.
The officer in the blue uniform thanked me. He and Major Gist walked away, looking
thoughtful.
The next day the heavy rains continued. I spread the sail over the boat and slept snug and
dry. Then I heard the voice I missed more than any in the world calling, "Samuel, Samuel
Abraham!" Sana had found me! It was not a dream. "You chose, Samuel," she said. "You
did it right. You chose our new country." From under her cloak she took a hot, steaming
loaf wrapped in a napkin—her freedom bread, the sweetest I ever tasted. While we ate,
she told me that Toby and Nathaniel were safe.
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See pictures pages 246-247
But this new country was in danger. Major Gist came to me again and explained that
every boat was needed to carry Washington's army from Brooklyn to Manhattan. The
army had to retreat that night. I was going to help save the army with Farmer Isaac's boat.
Wouldn't he be surprised?
On the night that General Washington's army left Brooklyn, the worst storm I'd ever seen
blew in from the Northeast. The wind howled. It drove the rain, stinging, into our eyes. It
shook buildings and knocked down chimneys. And it whipped the water at Brooklyn
Ferry into a sea of foam.
Down from the Heights in file marched Washington's army. The men entered the boats
Major Gist and others had gathered at the ferry landing.
"What we need is a rope to cling to," someone said in the dark. "A rope stretching from
here to Manhattan to guide us against the wind and current."
"There's rope here in the shipyard," a soldier remembered. "Buoys to float the rope across,
too. But who can cross this flood in the dark?"
"Can you do it, Samuel?" Major Gist asked. "Can you get across with the rope?"
"I can do it, Major," I shouted, the wind tearing the words out of my mouth. But I wasn't
sure. Even if the rope were fed out from shore slowly, the sail might split or
the rope might tear down the mast. But the British ships were sure to force their way
between Brooklyn and Manhattan. I had to try.
When the rope was ready, I tied it to the foot of the mast. Sana jumped into the boat. I
shouted at her to stay behind, but she wouldn't move. There was no time to lose. I shoved
off into the swirling current.
My only hope was to let the shore current carry me out into midstream, and then, as the
wind and tide thrust the boat toward the other shore, raise the sail and race for the
Manhattan landing.
Fighting the rudder, I heard Sana's voice in my ear. "Will we make it, Samuel?" Water
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crashed over the side. Sana was bailing as fast as she could. "I can't swim, Samuel!" she
cried into the wind. We were halfway across to Manhattan, and the boat was filling with
sea. The gale was spinning us around. The rope was pulling us backward. I heaved at the
sail, praying the mending wouldn't tear.
Then, as the sail filled, the boom swung around with a crack, and we were darting forward
at last. On the Manhattan landing, by lantern light, we could see people waiting. Over the
roar of the storm, we heard them cheering us on. But Isaac's boat was sinking. The rope
was tearing the mast out of the bottom. With a terrible crash, the mast broke and was
carried over the side. A second later the bow smashed into the side of a wharf, and I found
myself in the water swimming with one arm, clinging to Sana with the other.
We stumbled ashore on Manhattan Island, where kind people wrapped us in blankets.
They were smiling—the rope was across! The boats full of Washington's soldiers would
follow. We had done it, together.
All through the night Washington's men followed that rope, boat after boat, across the
water. In the stormy darkness, every soldier escaped from Long Island.
And so the fight for freedom would go on. It would take many long years before we
would beat the British king, but never again did I wonder what freedom was, or what it
cost. It was people pulling together. It was strong hands helping. It was one person caring
about another.
And where was Washington? Many times that night Sana and I hoped to see him.
"Why, Samuel," Major Gist told us later, "he was that officer in the blue coat who asked
you how deep the water was between Brooklyn and Manhattan. Last night the general
arrested a farmer in Brooklyn for helping the British. That farmer, Isaac van Ditmas,
turned all of his property over to the Army of the Continental Congress in exchange for
his freedom. It seems now that you and Sana have no master."
From that day forward, we and Isaac's other slaves were to be citizens of a new nation.
Literature Review
1. How did Samuel help the Continental army?
2. Why do you think Samuel chose to help the Patriots?
3. Write a conversation that you think could have taken place as Samuel and other slaves
on Isaac's farm decided what to do as they watched the Americans flee from the British
army.
248
Lesson 5
THE PUSH FOR VICTORY AND INDEPENDENCE
Link to Our World
How do people meet difficult challenges today?
Focus on the Main Idea
As you read, look for ways Americans met the challenges of their war for independence.
Preview Vocabulary
siege
treaty
negotiate
After General Washington's retreat following the Battle of Long Island, Continental
troops moved into New Jersey. There, they won important battles at Trenton and
Princeton. But victory was still far from certain. In December 1777 Washington set up
headquarters at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, near Philadelphia. That winter his ragged
army was almost destroyed by cold and hunger. By Washington's own count, 2,898 of his
men had no boots. Many were ill, and many died. The Patriots had declared their
independence, but would their army be strong enough to win it?
HELP FROM OTHER LANDS
The Patriots got some help from soldiers of other countries. Among them were two Polish
officers, Casimir Pulaski (puh•LAS•kee) and Thaddeus Kosciuszko
(kawsh•CHUSH•koh). Later Kosciuszko returned to Poland to lead a revolution there.
Among others who came from Europe were the German soldiers Johann de Kalb and
Friedrich von Steuben (vahn sToo•buhn). The Marquis de Lafayette (lah•fee•ET), a 20year-old French noble, came from France to fight along with the Americans.
At Valley Forge during the winter of 1777, von Steuben took on the job of drilling the
Continental army so that the soldiers would be ready to move quickly. By spring 1778 the
soldiers were marching well.
The Badge of Merit was designed by George Washington and given to soldiers who
showed special bravery. Today this award is known as the Purple Heart. See picture page
248.
249
MAJOR BATTLES OF THE REVOLUTION
REGIONS This map shows the major battles of the Revolutionary War. In which region
did most of the early battles take place? In which region did the later battles take place?
See map page 249.
250
In the meantime, the Continental Congress had sent Benjamin Franklin to Paris to ask the
French to join the war. The French were eager to see the American colonies win the war
and weaken their long-time enemy, the British. But the French felt that the colonists did
not have much chance of winning.
Franklin talked with the French leaders for months. Then came news of the colonists'
great victory at Saratoga in New York. More than 5,700 British soldiers under General
John Burgoyne (buhr•GOYN) had moved south from Canada, hoping to cut the colonies
in two. Instead, on October 17, 1777, the British lost to Continental soldiers led by
General Horatio Gates.
The colonists' victory at Saratoga showed the French that the colonists stood a chance of
winning the war. The French sent guns, ships, and soldiers to help. With the help of the
French, the colonists fought more battles, including the siege of Savannah in 1779. A
siege is a long-lasting attack. At the siege of Savannah, more than 800 Haitians, 80 of
them slaves, fought with the French and American soldiers. Haiti was a French colony in
the Caribbean.
After the victory at Saratoga, other countries helped the colonists, too. In 1779 Bernardo
de Galvez (GAHL•ves), the Spanish governor of Louisiana, sent guns, food, and money to
the Patriots. Later he led his own soldiers in taking a British fort in Florida. Spanish-born
Jorge Farragut (FAIR•uh•guht) fought in the Continental army and also the navy.
Why did Europeans decide to help the Patriots in their war for independence?
General Friedrich von Steuben helped train Continental soldiers at Valley Forge. After
learning how to march and move together on the battlefield, soldiers were able to attack
and retreat faster. See picture page 250.
251
VICTORY AT YORKTOWN
When the British government learned that France had joined the American side, British
army leaders moved their attack from the northern colonies to the southern. The British
hoped that the greater Loyalist support in the south would help defeat the Patriots once
and for all. With the help of Loyalists, the British army captured Charleston, South
Carolina, in 1780. Pushing north from South Carolina, the British then charged through
North Carolina and into Virginia.
During 1781 the fighting centered in Virginia. For several weeks Benedict Arnold, a
former Continental army officer, attacked colonial towns in Virginia for the British.
Arnold was a traitor—he acted against his country. Earlier, he had turned over the plans to
the American fort at West Point, New York, in exchange for money and a high rank in the
British army.
By late summer of 1781, British General Charles Cornwallis had set up at Yorktown, a
small Virginia town on Chesapeake Bay, where it was easy for British ships to land
supplies. The French and the Continentals moved quickly to defeat the British at
Yorktown. The French joined the Continentals near New York City, and together the two
armies marched to Virginia and surrounded Yorktown. At the same time, the French navy
took over Chesapeake Bay. Now the British navy could not get supplies to the British
army at Yorktown. The British army was trapped.
In late September Cornwallis sent word to his commander in the north. "If you cannot
relieve me very soon," he said, "you must be prepared to hear the worst."
The worst happened. Surrounded and under siege for two weeks from both land and sea,
Cornwallis had to give up. A person who was there wrote, "At two o'clock in the evening
Oct. 19th, 1781, the British army, led by General O'Hara, marched out of its lines, with
colors cased [flags folded] and drums beating a British march." When the French
WHEN
1775-1783
The American Revolution took place mainly on the east coast of North America. During
that time, however, other things were happening on the western part of the continent.
Spanish-speaking people were settling traditional Indian lands in the area that stretched
from the Mississippi River to the Pacific Ocean—the present-day Southwest. They were
building towns and giving names to places that later would become part of the United
States. In Hawaii, whaling ships from all over the world were stopping for supplies. In
Alaska, Russian fur traders were setting up trading posts.
Learning from Timelines
This time line lists key battles and other important events of the American Revolution.
How long after the war began was independence declared?
KEY EVENTS OF THE REVOLUTION
1775 Battles of Lexington, Concord, and Bunker Hill
1776 Declaration of Independence
1777 Battle of Saratoga
1777-1778 Winter at Valley Forge
1781 Battle of Yorktown
1783 Treaty of Paris
252
and American soldiers heard the drums, they stopped their fire. The British and Hessian
soldiers then marched out of Yorktown and laid down their weapons in a field.
Though fighting dragged on in some places for more than two years, it was clear that
victory had been decided at Yorktown in 1781. The Patriots had won after a long and hard
fight.
How did the French help the Americans win the Battle of Yorktown?
THE TREATY OF PARIS
The Battle of Yorktown did not end the Revolutionary War. The Treaty of Paris did that.
A treaty is an agreement between countries.
Work on the treaty began in April 1782 when the British sent Richard Oswald, a wealthy
merchant, to Paris to talk with Benjamin Franklin. Franklin gave Oswald the American
terms—that is, what Americans wanted in the treaty. One of the terms was that the British
had to accept American independence and remove British soldiers from American soil.
Franklin told Oswald that Americans might feel better toward the British if Parliament
paid those whose towns had been destroyed in the war.
In return, the British asked that the Loyalists who remained in the United States be treated
fairly. Many Loyalists fled to Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Upper Canada. Those
who returned to Britain were sorry they did. Most could not find jobs and soon became
very poor. Instead of being grateful
In John Trumbull's painting of the surrender at Yorktown, American General Benjamin
Lincoln (center, on the white horse) receives the surrender from an aide to British General
Cornwallis. George Washington is in front of the American flag. See picture page 252.
253
for their support, the British government ignored them.
The British and Americans negotiated, or talked with one another to work out an
agreement. After more than a year of such talks, the Treaty of Paris was signed by British
and American representatives on September 3, 1783.
The Treaty of Paris named the United States of America as a new nation and described its
borders. The United States would reach to Florida on the south, a line through the Great
Lakes on the north, and the Mississippi River on the west. The fact that much of the land
between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River was the home of many
different American Indian tribes was of little or no interest to the leaders who signed the
treaty.
The Treaty of Paris was a victory just as much as winning at Yorktown had been.
Independence was now a fact. But the Americans faced many problems. They had formed
a new country, yet the 3 million people in the 13 new states were far from united.
What were the terms of the Treaty of Paris?
REGIONS This map shows the United States and the North American lands claimed by
European countries in 1783, following the Treaty of Paris. What were the boundaries of
the new nation called the United States? See map page 253.
LESSON 5 REVIEW
Check Understanding
1. Recall the Facts How was help from the people of France and other countries important
to the colonists in winning the war?
2. Focus on the Main Idea How did the colonists meet the challenges of war against the
British?
Think Critically
3. Think More About It Why do you think the colonists did not give up when it looked as
if they would not win the war?
4. Past to Present What can Americans today learn from the Patriots?
Show What You Know
Research Activity Because the Revolution was so important, many places are named after
people who fought on the Patriots' side. Use an atlas to locate as many places as you can
that are named for Washington, Franklin, Galvez, Lafayette, and others. Compare your list
with that of a classmate.
254
CHAPTER 8 REVIEW
CONNECT MAIN IDEAS
See organizer page 254
Use this organizer to show that you understand how the chapter's main ideas are
connected. Copy the organizer onto a separate sheet of paper. Then complete it by writing
the main idea of each lesson.
WRITE MORE ABOUT IT
1. Write a Pamphlet Take the role of a Loyalist or a Patriot. Write a short pamphlet that
explains your point of view about British rule. Explain why you have chosen your side.
2. Write a Newspaper Article Imagine you are a reporter who witnessed the British
surrender at Yorktown. Write a newspaper article describing what you saw.
255
USE VOCABULARY
Use each term in a sentence that helps explain its meaning.
1. allegiance
2. declaration
3. enlist
4. grievance
5. mercenary
6. movement
7. negotiate
8. neutral
9. olive branch
10. pacifist
CHECK UNDERSTANDING
1. How did the Second Continental Congress try to make peace with Britain?
2. What were George Washington's strengths as a general?
3. What was the importance of Thomas Paine's Common Sense?
4. What did the Declaration of Independence tell the world?
5. How did people who did not fight in the war show their support for independence?
6. How was help from other countries important to the American victory?
7. What was the important result of the Battle of Saratoga?
8. Put these events in the proper order: the Treaty of Paris, the Declaration of
Independence, Valley Forge, the Battle of Bunker Hill, the Battle of Yorktown.
THINK CRITICALLY
1. Think More About It Many leaders of the Revolution, such as George Washington
and Thomas Jefferson, were successful and wealthy. Why would they risk everything they
had to take part in a revolution?
2. Personally Speaking Imagine that you were a delegate to the Second Continental
Congress. Do you think you would have signed the Declaration of Independence? Explain
your answer.
3. Past to Present How do American citizens today let their government know about their
grievances?
4. Explore Viewpoints Explain how Patriots and Loyalists viewed the American
Revolution.
5. Cause and Effect How did the military training of Continental soldiers affect the war?
APPLY SKILLS
How to Read a Political Cartoon Look through newspapers and magazines for a
political cartoon about a subject that interests you. Cut out the cartoon and paste it to a
piece of paper. Below the cartoon, write a brief paragraph that explains its meaning.
READ MORE ABOUT IT
The American Revolutionaries: A History in Their Own Words 1750-1800 edited by
Milton : Meltzer. HarperCollins. This book explores the events of the Revolution as told
in people's letters, speeches, and other primary sources.
Black Heroes of the American Revolution by Burke Davis. Harcourt Brace. The author
describes the actions of soldiers, sailors, scouts, spies, and others who contributed to the
colonies' struggle for freedom.
The Fighting Ground by Avi. J.B. Lippincott. In this story 13-year-old Jonathan seeks the
glories of war and finds that he must fight several battles within himself.
Heroines of '76 by Elizabeth Anticaglia. Walker. The author tells about the brave deeds of
14 women during the Revolutionary War.
256
MAKING SOCIAL STUDIES RELEVANT
Tiananmen Square
See picture pages 256-257
In 1776 the American Patriots struggled for freedom. Today people in some parts of the
world are doing the same. In April 1989, college students in China wanted their country to
be more like a democracy. The students gathered at Tiananmen (TYAHN•AHN•MEN)
Square in the center of Beijing (BAY•JING), the capital city, to express their views in a
public demonstration.
Thousands of people, young and old, came to the square every day to show their support
257
for the students. One group made its own Statue of Liberty out of plastic foam. Other
people made posters. One poster quoted the Declaration of Independence, calling for "life,
liberty and the pursuit of happiness" for all Chinese people. Another recalled Patrick
Henry's famous words, "Give me liberty or give me death."
The democracy demonstration in Tiananmen Square ended violently on June 4, 1989.
That morning hundreds of Chinese soldiers poured into the square, killing many of the
demonstrators.
Government leaders had ordered the attack. Like the British king in 1776, the Chinese
rulers feared losing their authority.
Shen Tong, a Beijing University student speaking at an Independence Day celebration in
Boston on July 4, 1989, compared the Tiananmen Square massacre with the Boston
Massacre. "People died," Shen said of the Boston Massacre, "but it sparked the American
struggle for independence. I do not believe that the Tiananmen Square massacre was the
end of the democracy movement in China. It was the beginning." Today many people in
China continue the struggle for freedom.
THINK AND APPLY
Think about what happened at Tiananmen Square. Find examples of people today
struggling for freedom or independence. Select the example that interests you the most.
Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast the present-day events with those of the
American Revolution. Share your findings with a classmate.
258
UNIT 4
STORY CLOTH
Study the pictures shown in this story cloth to help you review the events you read about
in Unit 4. See picture pages 258-259.
Summarize the Main Ideas
1. The colonists were forced to pay taxes to Britain even though they had no
representation in Parliament. They especially hated the tax law called the Stamp Act.
2. The colonists united to protest British taxes. At the Boston Tea Party, colonists dumped
tea from British ships into Boston Harbor.
3. As anger grew, both the colonists and the British prepared for fighting. Paul Revere and
William Dawes went on a night ride to warn of approaching British soldiers.
4. Minutemen faced British soldiers at Lexington and Concord in April 1775. This was
the start of the War for Independence.
5. On July 4, 1776, the Declaration of
Independence was approved by members of the Continental Congress.
6. The war went on for years, and soldiers in the Continental army faced many hardships.
Yet they continued to receive support from many people in the colonies.
7. The American victory at Yorktown in 1781 forced the British to surrender. In 1783 the
Treaty of Paris named the United States as a new nation.
Show More of the Story Draw pictures that show more about the American Revolution.
Label the pictures, and tell where they should go on the story cloth.
260
UNIT 4 REVIEW
Cooperative Learning Workshop
Remember
•Share your ideas.
•Cooperate with others to plan your work.
•Take responsibility for your work.
•Show your group's work to the class.
•Discuss what you learned by working together.
Activity 1
Make a Time Line
Work with three or four classmates. Make a time line showing the important events of the
American Revolution. Begin with the Stamp Act, and end with the signing of the Treaty
of Paris. Be sure to label the date of each key event on the time line.
Activity 2
Present a Dramatic Reading
After the Declaration of Independence was signed in 1776, copies of it were sent to all the
colonies. In many towns the Declaration was read aloud at public meetings. The readers
showed the importance of the document by adding drama to their reading. Your class
should work in four groups, each responsible for preparing a dramatic reading of one part
of the Declaration of Independence. Each group member should help read his or her
group's part.
Activity 3
Give a Speech
The actions of many individuals affected the outcome of the American Revolution. With
other students, choose one such individual and write a speech for that person as though he
or she were coming to visit your class. Be sure to tell in the speech how this person's
actions affected the outcome of the Revolution. Select one member of your group to
present the speech to the class.
Activity 4
Make a Model
Imagine that you are taking part in a Fourth of July celebration. With three or four of your
classmates, build a model for a parade float that shows an important event of the
American Revolution. Display your model in the classroom.
261
USE VOCABULARY
Write the term that correctly matches each definition.
Continental
tax
pacifist
treaty
self-government
1. a believer in peaceful settlement
2. making one's own laws
3. money paid to a government for running it
4. an agreement between countries
5. a soldier in George Washington's army
CHECK UNDERSTANDING
1. What actions by the British king angered the colonists?
2. Why did some enslaved Africans join the British side, while others fought on the side
of the colonies?
3. How did the actions of Thomas Paine, Crispus Attucks, Paul Revere, and Benedict
Arnold affect the outcome of the American Revolution?
4. What battle made the French believe the colonists could really defeat the British?
5. Who were Charles Cornwallis and Thomas Gage?
THINK CRITICALLY
1. Past to Present What does the Declaration of Independence mean to Americans today?
2. Explore Viewpoints People in the British colonies were divided in their views about
self-government and independence. What were these different views? Why did people
hold them?
3. Personally Speaking What person who took part in the American Revolution do you
admire most? Why?
4. Think More About It Why do you think the small Continental army was able to defeat
the powerful British army?
APPLY GEOGRAPHY SKILLS
How to Use a Historical Map The Treaty of Paris described the borders of the
new nation. However, disputes over land remained between former colonies and between
the United States and Britain. Use the map below to answer the questions. See map page
261.
1. What year does this map show?
2. How are disputed lands shown on the map?
3. Which two former colonies claimed the same land?
4. Describe the location of the land claimed by both the United States and Britain.