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Unit 10
CARBOHYDRATES INCLUDING FIBRE
Objectives
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To describe the classification of carbohydrates
To show that carbohydrates are an important source of food energy
To explore the advantages of whole grains
To show the digestive process of carbohydrates
To discover the major difference between natural and refined sugar
To identify the effects of refined sugar in the diet
To appreciate the Glycaemic Index (GI) of different carbohydrates
To clarify the difference between soluble and insoluble fibre
To discover the benefits of fibre and how to increase the intake if needed
FORMS OF DIETARY CARBOHYDRATE6
The word carbohydrate was coined from the initial observation that these compounds
are comprised of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
(CHO)
Carbohydrates are sugars and starches, compounds made by plants through the
process of photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide from the air, and water from the soil
combine in the presence of sunlight with the plant’s chlorophyll to form carbohydrates
which are then stored in the fruits, seeds, roots, stems and leaves of the plant12.
Carbohydrates should supply 60 – 70% of our energy needs6.
Carbohydrates are divided into three groups, which cover:
Sugars, starches and dietary fibre.
A. Mono-saccharides or simple sugars: (mono = one)6
Mono-saccharides are the simplest units of carbohydrate.
Before any carbohydrate food can be absorbed into the blood stream and used for
energy, the digestive process must break it down to its simplest form (glucose,
fructose and galactose).
B. Di-saccharides or double sugars: (di = two)6
Di-saccharides are made up of two mono-saccharides.
C. Poly-saccharides or complex sugars (starches): (poly = many)6
Poly-saccharides are chains of many single units.
1. Starch
(many glucose units – 1300 or more in a starch grain) found
mainly in cereals, grains, vegetables and legumes. Where
carbohydrate is the staple diet, it is starches rather than sugars,
which predominate. But as countries become richer,
consumption of starches decreases while consumption of refined
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sugar (sucrose) increases. Because foods which contain
starches also contain fibre, minerals and vitamins, whereas
refined sugar has none of these nutrients, such dietary changes
may have great significance.
2. Dextrin
(a molecule of lesser complexity than starch) it is formed from
starch by the action of heat, acids or enzymes. Commercial
dextrin is formed when heating starch.
3. Glycogen (storage form of glucose) found in the liver and muscles of man
and animals.
4. Fibre
(made up of many glucose units) found in two main types,
insoluble and soluble.
Insoluble fibre (cellulose) is the structural carbohydrate of
plants found in cereals, fruits and vegetables. Not digested by
man it increases food bulk and so reduces the transit time of
food through the body.
Soluble fibre (hemicelluloses, pectins, mucilages, gums, and
modified polysaccharides) are found in oats, rice, legumes, fruit
and vegetables. In food they provide properties of gelling,
thickening (as in jams), emulsifying, stabilizing, and texture.
Soluble fibre is related to the slowing down of starch digestion
and glucose absorption, in that it puts a gel around the nutrients.
This fibre gel also has the ability to attach itself to bile salts
helping to reduce high blood cholesterol levels.
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES6
Carbohydrates should supply 60 – 70% of our energy needs, or daily calorie intake.
Most of this should come from grains, vegetables and fruit. These foods are also high
in fibre and contain necessary vitamins and minerals.
Carbohydrates serve a number of important functions:
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They are an economical source of fuel or energy, providing 4 cal./16kJ/g
Glucose is the form in which individual cells throughout the body obtain
their energy.
If there is enough carbohydrate in the diet, protein need not be used for
energy, but can serve its proper purpose in making and repairing body
cells. Carbohydrate therefore has a protein-sparing action6.
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THE IMPORTANCE OF WHOLE GRAINS11
Grains have come to mean ‘sustenance’ and ‘life’. Today they are our most
important crop, feeding over half the world’s population. For many they truly
represent the ‘staff of life’ and nutritionists recognise the valuable contribution grains
make to a healthy diet11.
Grains are important from a nutritional point of view. They are rich in complex
carbohydrates (which helps make them filling and sustaining foods), and they provide
a good source of different types of dietary fibre as well as contributing proteins and
many vitamins and minerals11.
Grains are low in sugars and sodium. Grains are generally low in fat (2-4%), except
for oats, which contains double that of other grains (7%). Almost all the fat contained
in grains is poly-unsaturated and is located in the germ. Grains are plant products
and so contain no cholesterol11.
Grains are especially valued for their vitamin B content, especially thiamin, riboflavin
and niacin. Vitamin E is found in the germ and is present only in whole grains and
wholemeal flour. Grain foods supply iron, plus small amounts of potassium, calcium,
zinc, magnesium, manganese and copper11.
Refining grains
Each grain consists of three parts. The outer ‘bran’ layers protect the seed and are
impermeable to water. These layers are rich in fibre, minerals and the important B
vitamins – riboflavin, niacin and thiamin. The ‘endosperm’ is the inner storehouse of
food material (carbohydrate and protein), and the ‘germ’ is the growing point of the
plant from which the new shoot and root emerge. The germ contains most of the
grain’s thiamin and vitamin E, and is rich in oils11.
White flour is mainly endosperm, plus small quantities of fibre, and less in nutritional
value than wholemeal flour11.
We have a wonderful variety of cereal grains: barley, wheat, oats, rye, buckwheat,
corn, rice and millet11.
Cereal grains can be stored for long periods of time with their nutritional value in
tact11.
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DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES6
1. All carbohydrate (except cellulose) is broken down by the digestive process into
simple sugar form.
2. The process begins in the mouth where the enzyme amylase begins to
breakdown the long starch chains made of glucose units, into smaller chains.
Cooked starch is more easily digested than uncooked starch because the cell
walls have been broken and the enzymes can reach the starch molecules.
3. The stomach regulates the speed that carbohydrate is released into the small
intestine. Amylase from saliva continues to work on starch in the stomach until it
is mixed with acid. This can take up to 20 minutes.
4. In the small intestine (main site for carbohydrate digestion) the breakdown of the
long glucose chains (starch) is completed. The shorter chains broken down in the
mouth or stomach are further broken down into di-saccharides and monosaccharides. Three enzymes, sucrase (breaks down sucrose), maltase (breaks
down maltose), and lactase (breaks down lactose).
Note: Lactose intolerance is the result of an insufficient supply of the enzyme lactase.
The body is therefore unable to break down the di-saccharide lactose into galactose
and glucose. Lactose intolerance has two common reactions:
a. Osmotic effect – movement of water from blood stream to intestine to dilute
sugar concentration, results in diarrhoea.
b. The bacteria in the intestine will convert lactose to lactic acid producing
gas, pain, and irritable bowel6.
USE AND STORAGE OF CARBOHYDRATES6
After carbohydrate has been broken down into simple sugars it can enter the blood
stream. In the liver, fructose and galactose are converted to glucose. Glucose
serves several functions in the body.
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The main use of glucose is to provide energy for the body to function.
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The brain requires 120 grams of glucose daily to function normally. The glycogen
store in the liver is used to maintain a stable blood glucose level.
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30 grams of glucose is required daily by the blood cells.
The skeletal muscles in a sedentary person uses 30 grams of glucose per day.
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The liver stores a supply of glucose in long chains called glycogen. Glycogen can
be broken down very quickly into glucose and is a form of instant energy.
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Any excess carbohydrate ingested is converted to fat and stored as adipose
tissue. It is interesting to note that the body finds it very hard to convert stored fat
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into energy and will use other available forms of energy first. The body may use
protein in muscle tissue to provide energy before it will use adipose deposits.
Carbohydrate is an important protein-sparing nutrient6.
DEFICIENCY12
A deficiency of carbohydrate is unusual but may occur with some of the popular lowcarbohydrate diets. Low blood-sugar levels can cause symptoms such as fatigue,
nausea, loss of appetite, weakness and fainting. These can be relieved by giving
carbohydrate. A deficiency of carbohydrate could be accompanied by a lack of fibre,
vitamin C, some vitamins of the B group, and trace minerals.
EFFECTS OF EXCESS12
If more carbohydrates than required are eaten, the excess is converted into body fat.
This is particularly likely to occur with refined carbohydrates such as sugar, which is
easily consumed in large quantities. The fibre found in unrefined carbohydrates acts
as a natural obstacle to over eating. The amount of chewing which has to be
undertaken to over consume vegetables, apples and whole-grained cereals puts a
natural brake on the amount eaten.
Refining foods and removing fibre, for example in processing sugar or making fruits
into ready-to-drink juices, makes them much easier to consume in excessive
amounts. If we were to obtain sugar by chewing sugar cane, it would be impossible
for anyone to consume the amount of sugar the average Australian eats in refined
form12.
SUGAR
We are all born with a natural inclination towards sweet-tasting foods. Many natural
foods are well endowed with sweetness for our enjoyment. Most fruits and some
vegetables (such as carrots, peas, corn, pumpkin, sweet potatoes and beets) are
noted for their supply of natural sugars – glucose, fructose and sucrose, packaged
with many vitamins, minerals and fibre, in a variety of colours, textures and flavours7.
Sweet desserts are often the centre of our celebrations. Parties and special
occasions such as weddings, birthdays, and anniversaries are usually highlighted by
cakes, pies, ice-cream, biscuits and fruit drinks. It is not a sin to occasionally enjoy
foods sweetened with sugar, except when these special occasion foods become part
of the regular everyday food intake7.
On average, Australians consume 46 kilos of sugar a year – which equals 30
teaspoons a day! (Based on 1 teaspoon = 5 grams)6,16
It sounds a lot, but only 25% is used at home, the rest is hidden in processed food
products such as soft drinks, cordials, confectionery, biscuits, cakes, jam, sauces,
canned fruits, ice-cream, jelly and sweetened breakfast cereals.
On average, sugar contributes an extra 480 calories or 2000 kilojoules each day –
enough to make a difference between a person being normal weight or overweight5.
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Different Forms of Sugar6.
Be aware that sugar comes in different
forms & names:
White sugar
Raw sugar
Brown sugar
Cane sugar
Sucrose
Glucose
Fructose
Malt, maltose
Corn syrup
Lactose
Sorbitol
Mannitol
Honey
Molasses
Golden syrup
Treacle
Health Problems12
Apart from the obvious effect of excess calories/kilojoules causing excess weight,
sugar is harmful to the teeth and displaces more nutritious foods from the diet. It also
keeps bad company, as it is usually packaged with fats as in chocolate, biscuits,
cakes, sweet pastries etc.
Professor John Yudkin, Emeritus Professor of Nutrition at London University, claims
that refined sugar also increases the amount of uric acid in the blood (related to
gout), increases the likelihood of blood clots, alters the balance of the hormones
insulin and cortisol and makes a contribution to the causes of diabetes (refers to
foods that contain a combination of sugar and fat) and gastric ulcers.
There is still controversy about the exact effects of sugar, but it is a fact that sugar is
entirely free of minerals, vitamins, protein, fatty acids and fibre. The greatest problem
presented by sugar is its almost addictive nature, which leads to excessive intakes
such as we have in Australia, and the way it is packaged in processed foods in the
company of fats. As with most substances in the diet, the body might be quite
capable of handling small quantities, but is not equipped to cope with large amounts.
Cutting our sugar intake by at least half would seem reasonable and worthwhile.
Sugar should be limited by everyone, especially by those wanting to lose weight 12.
A ‘Natural Part of Life?’5
The promotion of sugar as a ‘natural part of life’ may be misleading to many people.
Sugar is natural when it is consumed as part of fruit, milk or other foods.
The unnatural form is white sugar, the processed and refined extract of sugar cane
or sugar beets. In this form, it is too easy to consume excessive amounts. For
example a can of soft drink can contain some 10 teaspoons of sugar! In this context,
perhaps the slogan should be ‘Sugar - an unnatural part of life’.
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Average number of teaspoons of added sugar (hidden) in popular foods
1 can soft drink
1 can flavoured mineral water
1 can low-joule soft drink
1 glass of cordial
1 glass of fruit juice drink
300 ml flavoured milk
1 scoop of ice-cream
1 drumstick cornetto
1 flavoured ice block
1 bowl cereal
1 plain sweet biscuit
1 cream sweet biscuit
1 piece of apple pie
1 iced donut
1 piece of bubble gum
1 piece of licorice twist
1 tbsp jam
1 tbsp marmalade
1 tbsp tomato sauce
50g chocolate bar
½ cup canned fruit in syrup, drained
1 small bowl jelly
1 banana split
1 milk shake
10 tsp
10
0
5
4-5
5
4
6
3
3
1
2
6
6
1
4
3-4
5-6
1
8
3
4
20
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Value of complex carbohydrates (starches) vs sugar6
If our bodies use glucose as the main fuel source, why not just eat sugar?
There are several reasons:
1. Refined sugar eaten alone is too concentrated and is irritating to the mucosa, or
lining of the stomach.
2. To transform glucose into energy the body uses many vitamins, minerals, and
enzymes. A diet rich in complex or unrefined carbohydrates will adequately
provide these essential nutrients. A high intake of refined sugars with no vitamins
and minerals present may deplete the body’s store of nutrients.
3. The body needs roughage (fibre), which is not present in refined foods.
4. a. Sugar (whether white, brown, raw or honey) is broken down and absorbed into
the bloodstream very quickly within 10-20 minutes. Glucose cannot be utilised by
the cells without the insulin, which is produced by the pancreas.
b. Insulin pushes glucose into the cells to restore the correct blood glucose level.
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c. Continually loading the system with foods high in sugar causes the pancreas to
work overtime.
d. When the blood glucose level rises quickly, too much insulin may be secreted
in an effort to restore normal glucose levels. As a result, the glucose level ends
up too low and the person feels hungry again. By continually overloading the
system with foods high in sugar, the pancreas can become diseased increasing
the risk of diabetes, hypoglycaemia and obesity.
5. If complex carbohydrates are the major source of energy, it takes 2 – 4 hours to
break down these substances into glucose. There is a slower, more gradual
release of energy into the bloodstream. This also helps satiety.
Consumption of large amounts of sugar will increase the occurrence of tooth decay
and obesity. If refined sugar contributes most of the energy in the diet there will
probably be a poor supply of vitamins and minerals and an over abundance of fat.
It is suggested that a consumption of LESS than 10 teaspoons of sugar per day
is a safe level.
Hints to reduce sugar intake:
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Eat fewer desserts.
Drink mainly water, limit soft drinks, cordials and other flavoured beverages.
Limit sugar to 2 teaspoons per serve in desserts and slices.
Use more fruits – they are nature’s desserts.
Use fruits preserved in their own juices.
Don’t be fooled by other names that are used for sugar - it is the same thing6.
At the supermarket5
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Read the ingredient labels. Identify the various forms of sugar in a product.
Select items lower in total sugar if possible.
Buy fresh fruits or fruits packed in water or juice. Avoid those in heavy syrup.
Buy fewer foods that are high in sugar such as prepared baked goods,
confectionery, sweet desserts, soft drinks, cordials, and fruit juice drinks.
In the kitchen6
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Reduce the sugar in foods prepared at home. Try new recipes or adjust your
own. Start by reducing the sugar gradually until you have decreased it by 1/3 or
more. Taste and quality need not suffer. Often sugar in a cake can be halved
before taste and quality suffers.
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At the table6
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Use less of all sugars. This includes white and brown sugar, honey, molasses
and syrups.
Choose fewer foods high in sugar such as cakes, biscuits, confectionery and
desserts.
Reach for fresh fruit instead of a sweet dessert or when you want a snack.
Add less sugar to hot drinks, cereal or fruit.
Get used to using half as much, then see if you can cut back even more.
Cut back on soft drinks and cordials.
Better still quench your thirst with plain water6.
GLYCAEMIC INDEX (GI) OF DIFFERENT CARBOHYDRATE FOODS14
The GI of foods refers to the rate at which carbohydrates in foods are converted into
glucose within the blood stream. Foods with a high GI release their glucose quickly
into the bloodstream, while those with a low GI give a slower sustained release of
glucose.
There is no doubt that having more foods with a lower GI is valuable for non-insulin
dependent diabetics, as these foods release glucose slowly and put less strain on
insulin supply.
The GI may also have benefits for appetite control and sports performance. It should
be pointed out however that the GI should not be the only measure used to judge
different foods. The GI of foods is affected by many factors including amount of
protein and fat present, as well as the amounts and types of fibre and starch present.
For example, the GI may be low because a food is high in fat and therefore takes a
long time to be digested. A Snickers bar has a lower GI than many fruits, but it is not
a better food because of that. In a similar way, Weet-Bix, which has a GI of 69
(intermediate/moderate GI food) – is therefore not classed as a low GI food, despite
its high nutritional value eg. low fat, low sugar, low salt, good source of fibre.
It is useful for people to include some low GI foods as part of an overall varied diet –
but not every food eaten has to be low GI. For people with diabetes, it is
recommended that they try to include one low GI food at each meal.
Overall, the GI concept, while useful in many instances, should not replace the
importance of looking at the total nutritional content of any food 14.
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FIBRE, ARE YOU GETTING ENOUGH10?
Dietary fibre is essential for good health. The term ‘dietary fibre’ actually refers to the
parts of plant foods, which escape the usual process of digestion in the small
intestine. Instead, dietary fibre moves into the colon (also known as the large
intestine), where it is broken down by bacteriaError! Reference source not found..
Fibre is found in plant foods such as fruits, vegetables, cereals, grains, legumes and
nuts. Meat and other animal foods (such as dairy products and eggs) do not
naturally contain dietary fibre.
Different types of fibre
There are three major types of dietary fibre, soluble fibre, insoluble fibre and resistant
starch. (although not actually a fibre, resistant starch is now being recognised as a
member of the ‘fibre family’ due to its similar beneficial effects on the body4.)
Soluble fibre is beneficial to help lower blood cholesterol levels and, in people with
diabetes, helps to control blood sugar levelsError! Reference source not found.. Soluble fibre
is found in fruits, vegetables, legumes, oats, rice and barley.
Insoluble fibre is so called because of its ‘bulking properties’. It helps keep us
‘regular’2. Foods containing insoluble fibre include wholegrain and wholemeal wheatbased breads, cereals and pasta.
Resistant starch is a type of starch found in plant foods that escapes digestion in
the small intestine. Resistant starch may provide similar benefits to other types of
fibre, such as helping to prevent constipation4. Foods containing resistant starch
include firm bananas, chickpeas, boiled long grain rice, baked beans, cooked potato
as well as cornflakes13.
Why fibre is important
Research has established that a diet high in dietary fibre can provide a number of
health benefits. It has been shown to help in the management or prevention of bowel
disorders and bowel disease, heart disease, diabetes and weight control 4.
A fibre rich diet is also a vehicle for providing many other protective plant
compounds, such as phytochemicals (natural plant chemicals) that may provide
protection against certain diseases, such as cancers and heart disease 14.
Bowel health and disease
Apart from its role in the prevention of constipation, dietary fibre can help maintain
bowel health in other ways. During the fermentation of fibre by bacteria in the colon,
substances called ‘short chain fatty acids’ are produced which help keep the cells of
the lower colon healthy4. In addition, dietary fibre, particularly the insoluble type, can
help reduce the risk of diverticular disease (a condition where pouches form in the
wall of the intestine)1.
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The role of dietary fibre in the prevention of colon cancer has long been debated by
researchers. The World Cancer Research Fund Report (1997), which examined the
findings of over 4,000, published scientific papers, found that dietary fibre may
possibly decrease the risk of colon cancer15.
The report suggested that other dietary factors (eg. antioxidants) found in high fibre
foods (such as fruits, vegetables, cereals and legumes) may contribute to this
reduced risk of colon cancer that has been linked with fibre15. It is also possible that
the short chain fatty acids produced as a result of eating fibre may help prevent
against colon cancer4.
Heart disease
Diets rich in soluble fibre (particularly from oats) have been shown to reduce heart
disease risk by lowering blood cholesterol levels9. Research suggests that including
legumes (eg. soybeans and chickpeas) oat bran or psyllium can significantly reduce
the total and LDL cholesterol (the ‘bad’ type of cholesterol) levels9.
Diabetes
Dietary fibre (in particular, soluble fibre such as that from beans, lentil and oats) can
slow the absorption of nutrients from the small intestine4. Slower absorption of
sugar/glucose from the small intestine will mean slower rise in blood sugar levels.
This is important for people with diabetes who need to avoid sharp peaks and falls in
blood sugar levels14.
Weight control
Dietary fibre may play a role in promoting and maintaining weight loss by increasing
the feeling of ‘fullness’ after a meal is eaten4. Also, many foods that are naturally
high in fibre, such as cereals, fruits and vegetables, are generally low in fat (which is
important for weight loss) and can take longer to chew, which could lead to eating
less4.
How much fibre do you need?
Dietary surveys show that the average Australian does not eat enough dietary
fibre3,4. Health professionals advise that adults should eat at least 30 grams of fibre
each day, for health benefits4.
How much food would provide 30 grams of fibre?
It is not difficult to add more fibre to our diets. As an example, the following foods
eaten over the day will provide over 30g of dietary fibre8.
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1 serving of high-fibre breakfast cereal (like Weet-Bix Hibran)
2 slices of wholemeal bread
2 serves of fresh fruit (eg. apple and banana)
3 serves (1/2 cup) of vegetables (eg. green beans, carrots and broccoli)
½ cup cooked kidney beans
30 g almonds
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What about fibre supplements10?
Fibre supplements can contribute fibre to the diet. However, there are several
reasons why it may be preferable to eat foods as a source of fibre, rather than taking
supplements:
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There are a number of different types of fibre found in foods, not all of
which may be present in a supplement.
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Consuming fibre supplements, rather than high-fibre foods, may mean
missing out on the other nutrients (such as vitamins, minerals and
phytochemicals) that are supplied by foods.
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Some fibre supplements have become popular as a supposed aid for
weight control. However, studies on the use of various fibre supplements
for weight reduction, show that weight loss is rarely sustained 4.
Hints for getting more fibre10
1. The best way to get enough dietary fibre is to regularly eat wholegrain or
wholemeal breads and cereals, legumes, fruits, vegetables, nuts and seeds.
2. Choose brown rice, wholemeal pasta, whole grain crispbreads and wheatmeal
biscuits.
3. Add legumes to soups, casseroles, salads and sauces.
4. Sprinkle chopped fresh or dried fruits, wheat germ or seeds on breakfast cereal.
5. Eat unpeeled fruits and vegetables wherever possible as the skins are a valuable
source of fibre.
6. In general, look on the nutrition panel of food products and choose those which
provide at least 1.5 grams of dietary fibre per serve.
It is also important to note that fibre absorbs water, so to further assist the effects of
fibre on bowel regularity, be sure to drink plenty of water throughout the day2.
Good Sources of Fibre
Poor Sources of Fibre (No Fibre)
Cereals and grain products
Legumes
Vegetables
Fruit
Meat
Fish
Poultry
Dairy products
Eggs
Fats and oils
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Summing it all up10
Eating enough dietary fibre is essential for good health. Different types of fibre
provide different health benefits so it’s important to include a wide range of fibre
containing plant foods each day.
REFERENCES:
1. Aldoori W, Giovannucci E, Rockett H, Sampson L, Rimm E, Willett W;
A PROSPECTIVE STUDY OF DIETARY FIBER TYPES AND
SYMPTOMATIC DIVERTICULAR DISEASE IN MEN
Journal of Nutrition 1998;128:714-9
2. American Dietetic Association;
POSITION OF THE AMERICAN DIETETIC ASSOICATION: HEALTH
IMPLICATIONS OF DIETARY FIBRE 1996
3. Australian Bureau of Statistics
NATIONAL NUTRITION SURVERY - SELECTED HIGHLIGHTS
Australia 1997
4. Baghurst P, Baghurst K, Record S;
DIETARY FIBRE, NON-STARCH POLYSACCHARIDES AND
RESISTANT STARCH: A REVIEW
Food Aust 1996;48(3:suppl)S3-35
5. Borushek A;
ALLAN BORUSHEK’S DIET MANUAL
Family Health Publications West Perth 1988:39-41
6. Butler T, Butler D, Stanton H;
VEGETARIAN COOKING DEMONSTRATOR’S MANUAL –
2nd EDITION
Adventist Health Department &
Sanitarium Nutrition Education Service, 1995:E13-E21
7. Craig W;
NUTRITION AND WELLNESS
Golden Harvest Books Berrien Springs Michigan. 1999:51-56
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8. Department of Community Services and Health;
NUTRITONAL VALUES OF AUSTRALIAN FOODS
AGPS Australia 1992
9. Glore S, Van Treeck D, Knehans A, Guild M;
SOLUBLE FIBER AND SERUM LIPIDS:
A LITERATURE REVIEW
Journal of American Dietetic Association1994;94:425-36
10. Sanitarium Nutrition Education Service;
ARE YOU GETTING ENOUGH FIBRE?
Sanitarium Health Food Company 1999
11. Sanitarium Nutrition Education Service;
GRAINS FOR GOODNESS
Sanitarium Health Food Company June 1990
12. Stanton R;
FOOD FOR HEALTH – second edition
W.B. Saunders Artarmon NSW 1983:19-21
13. Topping D;
RESISTANT STARCH, FOOD AND LARGE BOWEL HEALTH
Heinz Sight 1998;49(11)
14. Wahlqvist M;
FOOD AND NUTRITION - Australia and New Zealand 2nd Edition
Allen & Unwin Pty Ltd Crows Nest NSW 2002:397,431,432
15. World Cancer Research and American Institute for Cancer Research;
FOOD NUTRITION AND THE PREVENTION OF CANCER:
A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE 1997
16.
FOOD TECHNOLOGY February 1988:
Chemistry and Analysis of Soluble Dietary Fibre vs. Insoluble
Fibre – Different Physiological Responses: 81
150