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Mechanics of Breathing Volume changes lead to ______________________________ changes, which lead to the flow of gases to ______________________ the pressure. Pulmonary ventilation consists of two phases ______________________________: gases flow into the lungs ______________________________: gases exit the lungs Inspiration An __________________________ process Inspiratory muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals) _______________ Thoracic volume ______________________________ Lungs are ____________________________ because of the surface tension of the fluid between the pleural membranes As intrapulmonary volume (volume within the lungs) increases, gases within the lungs ___________________________________________________________ Intrapulmonary pressure ________________________ below atmospheric pressure producing a partial vacuum which sucks air into the lungs Boyle's Law: pressure and volume of a gas are ____________________ proportional Air flows into the lungs, down its pressure gradient, until ____________________________ pressure = ____________________ pressure Expiration A ______________________________ process that depends more on the natural elasticity of the lungs than muscle _________________________________ Inspiratory muscles ____________________ Rib cage _____________________ and lungs ____________________ Thoracic cavity volume _____________________ Intrapulmonary volume _____________________ Intrapulmonary pressure _________________________ higher than ______________________ pressure Gases flow out to ___________________ pressure inside and outside the lungs Forced expiration is an active process __________________ (passageways narrow) or chronic bronchitis or pneumonia (passageways ________________ with mucus or fluid) Intercostal muscles ___________________ Homeostatic Imbalance Intrapleural pressure is always ______________________ which is the major factor preventing _______________ of the lungs if it ever becomes ________________- to the atmospheric pressure, lungs immediately ________________ completely and ____________________ _____________________________ (lung collapse) is due to _________________ bronchioles ______________________ of alveoli wound that admits air into pleural cavity (pneumothorax) Nonrespiratory Air Movements Most result from _______________________ action Coughs and sneezes clear the air passages of _______________________________ Laughing and crying reflect our _______________________________ ______________________________ are due to spasms of the diaphragm from irritation sound occurs when inspired air hits vocal folds of _______________________ Yawn is very deep inspiration that ventilates all ______________________ Respiratory Volumes and Capacities Factors that affect respiratory capacity person's _________, _______________, ________________ and physical __________________ Normal breathing moves about ______________________ of air into and out of the lungs with each breath Tidal volume (TV): respiratory volume of ___________________ breath Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV): amount of air that can be taken _____________________ over the tidal inspiration normally between _______________________________________ Expiratory reserve volume (ERV): amount of air that can be _______________________________ after tidal expiration Residual volume: air that cannot be _______________________ expelled important because it allows gas exchange to go on __________________ and keeps alveoli _________________ Vital capacity (VC): the sum of the ________________________________ typically around ________________ for healthy young men Dead Space amount of air that enters the respiratory tract that remains in the ___________________ zone passageways and never reach the ________________ About ___________________ The ________________________ volume (air that actually contributes to gas exchange) is about ________________________- Pulmonary Function Tests _______________________: instrument used to measure respiratory volumes and capacities ____________________________ can distinguish between Obstructive pulmonary disease—increased airway ___________________ (e.g., bronchitis) Restrictive disorders—reduction in total lung ___________________ due to structural or functional lung changes (e.g., fibrosis or TB) Respiratory Sounds Produced as air flows into and out of the __________________________________ Bronchial sounds: produced by air rushing through the large respiratory passageways (____________________ and ________________________) Vesicular breathing sounds: occur as air fills ______________________ soft and resemble _________________________________________ Wheezing: ________________________ sound that usually occur during _______________________ results from narrowing of airways often from ___________________ External Respiration, Gas Transport, and Internal Respiration External respiration: actual exchange of gases between ___________________ and ________________________ Alveoli always has more ____________________ so moves into the blood Carbon dioxide is higher in _________________________ capillaries than in alveolar air so will move from blood into the ___________________ and be flushed out during expiration Oxygen transport in blood most attach to _______________________ in RBCs to form oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) the other small amount is carried dissolved in the ________________ Carbon dioxide transport in blood most is transported in plasma as ______________________________ (HCO3-) the rest binds to ______________________ Bicarbonate ions enter RBC, combine with __________________ ions to form _______________________________ which splits to form water and carbon dioxide that then diffuse from the blood and enter the alveoli Homeostatic Imbalance Hypoxia inadequate oxygen delivery to ________________________ in fair skinned people skin turns __________________ dark skinned people can be seen in __________________ may be result of ___________________, pulmonary disease or impaired blood _____________________ Carbon monoxide poisoning unique type of _____________________ bonds with hemoglobin instead of ___________________ leading cause of death from _______________ skin may turn ________________________ External Respiration, Gas Transport, and Internal Respiration ______________________ respiration: gas exchange process between systemic capillaries and the tissue cells ______________________ is unloaded and ______________________________ is loaded into the blood Carbon dioxide diffuses __________________ tissue cells and into blood where it combines with water to form _________________________, which quickly releases _______________________- ions bicarbonate ions diffuse out into ___________________, where they are transported oxygen is released from ____________________ and diffuses quickly out of the blood into ___________________________ Control of Respiration Involves neurons in the ________________ and ________________ medulla is the _____________________ and sets the basic rhythm of breathing its neurons fire an impulse that excite the ____________________ and external intercostal muscles maintains normal rate (_____________________) of 12-15 respirations/minute pons centers smooth out basic rhythm of inspiration and expiration set by the _____________________ __________________________: more vigorous and deep breathing (like during exercise) because brain centers send more impulses to the respiratory muscles Non-neural Factors Influencing Respiration Physical factors such as ________________________________________________ _____________________ body temperature causes an increase in rate of breathing Volition (___________________ control) but _____________________ controls soon take over Emotional factors can initiate _____________________- that act through the hypothalamus Chemical factors dealing with the levels of __________________ and _______________________ in the blood increased levels of carbon dioxide and _________________ blood pH stimulate _________________ rate and depth of breathing (hyperventilation) which can lead to brief periods of _________________ (cessation of breathing)
