Download REMEMBERING

REMEMBERING
I.
II.
Human Memory as an Information Processing System
A.
Memory—the system by which we retain information and bring it to
mind
B.
Memory encoding—taking information in
1.
Converting information into a form we can store
2.
Acoustically—encoded by sound
3.
Visually—encoded by mental image
4.
Semantically—encoded by meaning
C.
Memory storage—retaining information in memory (see Memory
Stages, below)
D.
Memory retrieval
1.
Accessing stored information to make it available to our
consciousness
2.
Availability may be a function of retrieval cues
3.
Encoding specificity principle—retrieval better when
surrounding cues similar to those present when information
learned (Tulving, 1983)
4.
Context-dependent memory effect—retrieval best when in same
setting
5.
State-dependent memory effect—retrieval best when in same
physiological or psychological condition
Memory Stages—Three-Stage Model
A.
Sensory memory
1.
Very brief sensory information storage (few seconds at most)
2.
Sensory register—temporary storage device for sensations
3.
Iconic memory
a.
Holds sensory visual images
b.
Lasts fraction of a second
4.
Eidetic imagery (photographic memory)
5.
Echoic memory
a.
Holds sensory auditory input
b.
Lasts three or four seconds maximum
B.
Short-term (working) memory—STM
1.
Holds information up to 30 seconds
2.
Most information stored acoustically
3.
“Working memory” because we are actively processing
4.
“Magic number”: 7 (plus or minus 2) units can be stored
5.
Chunking—more remembered when restructured into units
6.
Maintenance rehearsal—repeating information to keep longer in
STM
7.
Three-component model of memory
a.
Phonological loop—stores verbal/speech-based
information
b.
Visuospatial sketchpad—stores visual and spatial
information
c.
Central executive—coordinates both and interfaces with
LTM
C.
Long-term memory (LTM)
1.
Retains information for a longer period of time
2.
Essentially unlimited in capacity
3.
Consolidation
a.
b.
c.
III.
The
A.
B.
IV.
The
A.
B.
C.
Converting less stable STM information into LTM
Needs at least twenty-four hours after learning to occur
Both REM sleep and slow-wave sleep crucial to this
process
4.
Information stored on basis of meaning (semantically)
5.
Elaborative rehearsal—focus is on meaning of material
6.
Semantic network model
a.
Leading model regarding LTM organization
b.
Information held via interlinking concepts
c.
Spreading activation—one concept triggers recall of
related others
7.
Levels-of-processing theory
a.
Information held best depending on depth of level at
which it is encoded or processed
b.
Elaborative rehearsal more effective than maintenance
rehearsal
Contents of Long-Term Memory
Declarative memory (explicit memory)
1.
“Knowing that”
2.
Takes conscious effort to bring to mind
3.
Categories (organized by type or time frame)
a.
Semantic memory—compare to our storehouse of
information
b.
Episodic memory—personal experiences, personal
“story”
c.
Retrospective memory—memory of past events
d.
Prospective memory—keeping in mind future events
Procedural memory
1.
“Knowing how”
2.
Engaged without conscious effort
3.
Less easy to explain verbally
4.
Involves motor or performance skills
5.
Types of procedural memory
a.
Implicit memory—memory evoked without intentional
effort (e.g., pleasant memories when hearing a favorite
song)
b.
Explicit memory—intentional effort needed to bring it to
mind (e.g., remembering the capital of a state or
country)
Reliability of Long-Term Memory
Constructionist theory
1.
Memories not a perfect copy of past experience
2.
Memories created from integrated pieces of stored information
3.
Possibility that memories can be distorted
Flashbulb memories
1.
Vivid, lasting, highly detailed memories
2.
Derived from extremely salient past events
3.
Also may be inaccurate, distorted (like other LTM)
Eyewitness testimony
1.
Possible that it is inaccurate, distorted
2.
Misinformation effect—suggestions lead to inaccuracies in recall
3.
Accuracy involves the following factors:
a.
Ease of recall—slower response indicates less accurate
b.
V.
Degree of confidence—more confident eyewitness not
necessarily more accurate
c.
General knowledge about a subject—more
knowledgeable witness is more accurate regarding that
particular subject
d.
Racial identification—more errors made when
identification crosses racial lines
e.
Types of questions—leading, suggestive questions result
in more errors from witnesses than open-ended
questions
Exploring Psychology: Are Recovered Memories Credible?
A.
Often a lack of corroborating evidence
B.
Some memories may be genuine; some surely are false or distorted
C.
Very difficult to differentiate between false vs. true
MODULE 6.2 FORGETTING
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Why Do We Forget?
A.
Some people more forgetful than others
B.
Variety of explanations for normal forgetting
Decay Theory
A.
Belief that memory is a trace that fades over time
B.
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885) used nonsense syllables to test himself
and memory
C.
Ebbinghaus forgetting curve—most information lost shortly after
learning (66 percent in first day)
D.
Savings method—much less time to relearn forgotten information
E.
Massed vs. spaced practice effect—more information retained when
learning sessions spread out over time
F.
Weakness in decay theory:
1.
Forgetting over time is quite uneven
2.
Seems to be related to meaningfulness of original material
Interference Theory
A.
Belief that memory loss is due to occurrence of other similar events
B.
Retroactive interference—what learned now interferes with previous
learning
C.
Proactive interference—what learned now interferes with what will be
learned in the future
D.
Steps to minimize memory disruption from interference:
1.
Sleep after learning
2.
Practice (repeat) new information when first learned (may want
to overlearn)
3.
Schedule breaks between learning sessions (such as between
classes)
4.
Avoid studying similar topics in close succession
E.
Serial position effect
1.
Tendency to recall first and last items in a list best
2.
Interference most likely to occur with items in middle
3.
Primacy effect—recalling items best when they are given first
4.
Recency effect—recalling items best when they are given last
Retrieval Theory
A.
Forgetting results from breakdown in retrieving stored memories
B.
Encoding failure
1.
V.
VI.
VII.
Memory cannot be retrieved because information was never
originally stored (never encoded)
2.
We encode only as much information as we need
3.
Distinct, unique events tend to be remembered
4.
Similar events tend to be encoded as a group (based on
common features) so more difficult to distinguish among these
C.
Lack of retrieval cues
1.
Information encoded but not accessible
2.
Insufficient distinctive cues to help us retrieve
3.
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon—partial recall; may be
associated with general word retrieval difficulty
Motivated Forgetting
A.
Sigmund Freud—memories are not forgotten, just kept hidden
(repression)
B.
Repressed information is threatening or unpleasant
C.
Repression—defense mechanism that helps protect from overwhelming
anxiety
D.
Concept is controversial since there is evidence that refutes
Measuring Memory
A.
What is remembered may in part depend on how it is assessed
B.
Recall task—reproduce information that has been stored in memory
1.
Free recall—remember as much as possible; order does not
matter
2.
Serial recall—recall items or numbers in a particular order
3.
Paired-associates recall—after word pairs are memorized, one
word is presented (must retrieve associated word)
C.
Recognition task
1.
Select correct answer from among choices given (like a
multiple-choice test)
2.
Recognition memory nearly always better than recall
Amnesia—Severe Type of Memory Loss
A.
Types of amnesia
1.
Retrograde amnesia
a.
Loss of memory regarding past events
b.
May involve disruption of consolidation process
c.
Loss is greatest for more recent events
2.
Anterograde amnesia—difficulty or inability to store new
memories
3.
Childhood amnesia
a.
No recollection of earliest childhood years
b.
May be due to lack of sufficient organization of preverbal memories in the brain or immature brain
structures for LTM
B.
Causes of amnesia—physical or psychological
1.
Physical causes
a.
Blows to the head, degenerative brain diseases (such as
Alzheimer’s)
b.
Blood vessel blockage, infectious diseases, alcoholism
c.
Early detection critical to successful treatment
2.
Psychological causes (dissociative amnesia)—memory is
traumatic, too disturbing for conscious awareness (condition
may be reversed)
MODULE 6.3 THE BIOLOGY OF MEMORY
I.
II.
III.
Brain Structure in Memory: Where Do Memories Reside?
A.
Karl Lashley (early twentieth century)—search for engram
1.
Believed to be the physical trace or record of a memory (in the
brain)
2.
Research on rats—removing portions of cortex
3.
Rats still retained memory, regardless of what removed
4.
Conclusion is memory is stored throughout brain
B.
Neuronal networks—current technology reveals memory stored in
intricate circuitry of neural constellations (in brain)
C.
Hippocampus
1.
Portion of limbic system in brain
2.
Responsible for converting STM into long-term declarative
(semantic, episodic) memory
3.
Is not involved in procedural memory processes
4.
Temporary storage only of new declarative memories
D.
Other brain structures
1.
Thalamus—if damaged, results in amnesia
2.
Amygdala—helps encode emotional experiences
Strengthening Connections Between Neurons: The Key to Forming Memories
A.
Research on sea snail (Aplysia) by Eric Kandel (1995)
B.
Shows memory formation involves biochemical changes (at level of
synapse, the connection between neurons)
C.
Long-term potentiation (LTP)
1.
Connections between nerve cells (e.g., in brain) become
stronger as a result of repeated stimulation
2.
Stronger synaptic connections mean neuron communication
easier
3.
LTP believed to be a factor in STM to LTM conversion
Genetic Bases of Memory
A.
STM-LTM transformation in brain requires various proteins
B.
Production of these proteins regulated by certain genes
MODULE 6.4 APPLICATION: POWERING UP YOUR MEMORY LEARNING
OBJECTIVE
I.
II.
Using Mnemonics to Improve Memory
A.
Mnemonic—device for improving memory
B.
Types of mnemonics
1.
Acronyms and acrostics—use first letter of a series of words to
form a word or a verse
2.
Popular sayings and rhymes (such as “30 days hath
September…”)
3.
Visual cues, visual imagery—leave a visual note or create an
associated visual image
4.
Chunking—recombine larger amounts of information into a
useable or familiar unit
General Suggestions for Improving Memory
A.
Pay attention—focus on task, have quiet surroundings
B.
Practice—especially with elaborative rehearsal
C.
Use external memory aids—a reminder note is fine!
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
Link time-based tasks to external cues
Mentally rehearse—plan and visualize your tasks in advance
Enhance context-dependent effects
Control stress
Adopt healthy habits—healthy diet and exercise help memory