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10
POWER AND POLITICAL BEHAVIOR
CHAPTER SCAN
Power and accompanying political behavior is inevitable in all organizations. Power has
been categorized into five forms by French and Raven, which are, reward, coercive,
legitimate, referent, and expert power. Power can be used for personal gain, or for social
purposes. Etzioni categorized power and organizational membership into a power analysis.
Symbols of power are discussed, as well as the four political types of individuals in
organizations. A special inclusion is provided related to managing the boss as well as current
thoughts of sharing power through empowering organizational members.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Distinguish between power, influence, and authority.
Describe the interpersonal and intergroup sources of power.
Understand the ethical use of power.
Explain power analysis, an organizational-level theory of power.
Identify symbols of power and powerlessness in organizations.
Define organizational politics and understand the major influence tactics.
Develop a plan for managing the employee-boss relationship.
Discuss how managers can empower others.
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KEY TERMS
The following key terms are introduced in Chapter 10:
power
influence
authority
zone of indifference
reward power
coercive power
legitimate power
referent power
expert power
personal power
social power
strategic contingencies
powerlessness
organizational politics
political behavior
empowerment
THE CHAPTER SUMMARIZED
I.
LOOKING AHEAD: Texas Cattle Ranchers versus Harpo Productions: The Real
Issue is Power and Influence
II.
THE CONCEPT OF POWER
Power is the potential to influence another person. The way in which we affect the thoughts,
behavior, and feelings of another person is influence. Authority is the right to influence
another person. Most individuals prefer to use influence over authority to have obligations
fulfilled.
When we attempt to influence an individual, our approaches may or may not fall within the
employee's zone of indifference. The zone is a range of legitimacy in which the receiver
feels compelled to act on the influence.
III.
FORMS AND SOURCES OF POWER IN ORGANIZATIONS
A.
Interpersonal Forms of Power
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French and Raven identified the five most common bases of power in an organization
as reward, coercive, legitimate, referent, and expert power.
1.
Reward Power
Reward power is the control over rewards that are valued by another.
Typical examples of reward power are performance appraisals, bonuses, and
promotions. In addition, praise can be used as a reward.
2.
Coercive Power
Coercive Power is the ability to cause an unpleasant situation. The force
implied is related to threats and punishments. Verbal abuse and
embarrassment are forms of coercive power.
3.
Legitimate Power
Legitimate power is similar to authority, and is based on position and mutual
agreement. This form of power is provided to individuals by the organization.
Some managers resort to legitimate power if they are insecure with the ability
to influence others based on other forms of power.
4.
Referent Power
Referent power is based on admiration and charisma. Based on these
attributes, people are willing to follow the individual.
5.
Expert Power
Expert power is based on information, expertise, or knowledge. In this
instance, individuals that are privileged to a great deal of valuable information
will have expert power. Most forms of expert power are related to a specific
task. If the target of the expert does not need the expertise, the target will not
grant the expert the power.
B.
Using Power Ethically
Three questions are related to using power ethically. (1) Does the behavior produce a
good outcome for people inside and outside the organization? (2) Does the behavior
respect the rights of all parties? (3) Does the behavior treat all parties equitably and
fairly?
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C.
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Two Faces of Power: One Positive, One Negative
McClelland takes a stand for the use of power in a right, or wrong fashion. Personal
power is used for personal gain, and results in a win-lose approach. The opposite,
and positive approach is social power, where individuals use power to create
motivation to accomplish group goals.
D.
Intergroup Sources of Power
Groups have multiple approaches to controlling power. When groups control activities
that other groups depend on in order to complete their tasks, they control strategic
contingencies. In order to control this a group must have the ability to cope with
uncertainty, have a high degree of centrality within the group, and the group must perform
a function that is indispensable.
IV.
POWER ANALYSIS: A BROADER VIEW
Etzioni's approach to power measures the involvement of members that will lead to either
congruent or incongruent uses of power. He also proposed the classification of organizations
by the type of membership, which included alienative membership, (hostile, negative
feelings), calculative membership, (balanced benefits and limitations of membership), and
moral membership, (positive feelings about their affiliation).
A.
Coercive
Coercive power forces members to do something through threat or intimidation. It is
appropriate for use in organizations with alienative membership.
B.
Utilitarian
Utilitarian power influences members by providing them with rewards and benefits.
Managers prefer this form of power if it is available, and if it is appropriate for
businesses and other organizations with calculative membership.
C.
Normative
Normative power influences members through peer pressure, or by letting the
individuals know that they are expected to act according to the overall wishes of the
group. It is the appropriate form of power for an organization with moral
membership.
V.
SYMBOLS OF POWER
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Since organizational charts only reveal authority and not power, it is important to determine
what the symbols of power are across most organizations. One of the more easily identified
power symbols is that of a uniform for a police officer.
A.
Kanter's Symbols of Power
The primary characteristic for the 7 symbols of Kanter's is that they provide an ability
to aid or assist another person. Her symbols are active and other-directed. The
symbols are: (1) ability to intercede for someone in trouble, (2) ability to get
placements for favored employees, (3) exceeding budget limitations, (4) procuring
above-average raises for employees, (5) getting items on the agenda at meetings, (6)
access to early information, and (7) having top managers seek out their opinions.
B.
Kanter’s Symbols of Powerlessness
Powerlessness is a lack of power which may have different symptoms in managers at
different levels of the organization.
C.
Korda's Symbols of Power
Korda's symbols of power are easier to determine, and they include office furnishings,
time power, and standing by.
VI.
POLITICAL BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS
Organizational politics is the use of power and influence in organizations. Most managers
deny being part of the organization's politics, yet feel that it is an important role in their
organizations. Political behavior is actions not officially sanctioned by an organization that
are taken to influence others in order to meet one’s personal goals.
A.
Influence Tactics
Influence is the process of affecting the thoughts, behavior, or feelings of another
person. Influence can be levied upward, downward, or laterally. There are four
tactics that are used most frequently, they are: (1) consultation, (2) rational
persuasion, (3) inspirational appeals, and (4) ingratiation. The most effective tactic is
the rational ideas based on the needs of the target.
B.
Managing Political Behavior in Organizations
Since politics are inevitable in organizations, the best strategy is to take a proactive
stance in managing the political behavior in the environment. Office politics is not a
new concept, for as early as 1936, Dale Carnegie labeled office politics "skill in
human engineering.”
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VII.
MANAGING UP: MANAGING THE BOSS
One of the ways to be proactive about office politics is to assess the relationship of power
between employee and boss. The classic Harvard Business Review article by Gabarro and
Kotter indicates a need to (1) understand your boss and her context, (2) assess yourself and
your needs, and (3) develop and maintain a mutually supportive relationship.
VIII.
SHARING POWER: EMPOWERMENT
Sharing the power within an organization is empowerment. This creates a condition for
heightened motivation through the development of a strong sense of personal self-efficacy.
The open-book management concept states that "if you want employees to act like owners
and to care, you must empower them by giving them all the information any owner gets."
This is easier said than done, since much of our personal power is derived from thinking we
have something valuable that others do not. However, this is the misunderstood notion that
information is a scarce resource that must be replenished.
IX.
MANAGERIAL IMPLICATIONS: USING POWER EFFECTIVELY
X.
LOOKING BACK: Harpo, Oprah, and Power
CHAPTER SUMMARY
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



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

Power is the ability to influence others. Influence is the process of affecting the thoughts,
behavior, and feelings of others. Authority is the right to influence others.
French and Raven's five forms of interpersonal power are reward, coercive, legitimate,
referent, and expert power.
The key to using all of these types of power well is to use them ethically.
McClelland believes personal power is negative and social power is positive.
Intergroup power sources include control of critical resources and strategic contingencies.
According to Etzioni's power analysis, the characteristics of the organization are an
important factor in deciding the type of power to use.
Recognizing symbols of both power and powerlessness is a key diagnostic skill for
managers.
Organizational politics is an inevitable feature of work life. Political behavior consists of
actions not officially sanctioned that are taken to influence others in order to meet
personal goals. Managers should take a proactive role in managing politics.
The employee-boss relationship is an important political relationship. Employees can use
their skills to develop more effective working relationships with their bosses.
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Empowerment is a positive strategy for sharing power throughout the organization.
REVIEW QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. What are the five types of power according to French and Raven? What are the effects of
these types of power?
The five forms of interpersonal power are (1) reward, enabling an individual to grant positive
reinforcements to employees, (2) referent, enabling an individual to influence based on charisma
or admiration, (3) coercive, which rests on being able to cause threats or punishments, (4)
legitimate, enabling the individual to take advantage of his or her official authority, and (5)
expert, when an individual utilizes knowledge or expertise that transfers to the circumstance
needing influence. Reward and coercive power lead to compliance, but they both require the
manager to be present to dole out rewards and punishment, thus creating dependency
relationships. Legitimate power produces compliance, but doesn't necessarily lead to goal
accomplishment or employee satisfaction. Referent power has been linked with organizational
effectiveness, but it is also potentially dangerous. Expert power has the strongest relationship
with employee performance and satisfaction.
2. What are the intergroup sources of power?
The ability to control critical resources is an important resource for groups. In addition, groups
that control strategic contingencies have a resource that others in the organization depend on to
complete their tasks. The strategic contingencies include the ability to cope with uncertainty, a
high degree of centrality within the organization, and nonsubstitutability.
3. Distinguish between personal and social power. What are the four power-oriented
characteristics of the best managers?
Personal power is viewed as self-serving. Social power is acquired for the benefit of the entire
organization or its goals. Managers who use power effectively believe in the authority system.
They prefer work and discipline, and believe in justice. They are altruistic, and publicly put the
organization and its needs before their own.
4. According to Rosabeth Moss Kanter, what are the symbols of power? The symptoms of
powerlessness?
Kanter lists 7 symbols, including (1) the ability to intercede for someone, (2) ability to get
placements for favored employees, (3) exceeding budget limitations, (4) procuring above-average
raises for employees, (5) getting items on the agenda at meetings, (6 ) access to early
information, (7) and having top managers seek out their opinion. You exhibit a lack of power if
you are overly supervised, have inflexible adherence to rules, and your supervisor tends to do the
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job rather than training you to do it. It might be worth asking students which symbols of power
will change significantly through empowerment.
5. How do organizations encourage political activity?
Organizations encourage political activity through unclear goals, autocratic decision making,
ambiguous lines of authority, scarce resources, and uncertainty.
6. Which influence tactics are most effective?
The effectiveness of influence tactics depends on the target -- whether the influence attempt is
upward, downward, or lateral. Overall, rational persuasion is the most effective influence tactic.
7. What are some characteristics of an effective relationship between you and your boss?
An effective relationship between you and your boss: 1) fits both your needs and styles; 2) is
characterized by mutual expectations; 3) keeps the boss informed; 4) is based on dependability
and honesty; and 5) selectively uses your boss's time and resources.
8. What are some ways to empower people at work?
Individuals have to share the risks and responsibilities to empower others. Empowerment means
the ability to alter the direction or course of the goal, not just the responsibility to achieve the
goal. In order to assure employees are truly empowered, managers must express confidence in
them by removing bureaucratic constraints, while opening up new opportunities for participation.
This is often difficult for managers, since they may open doors for others that have not been
opened for them in the past.
DISCUSSION AND COMMUNICATION QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Who is the most powerful person you know personally?
What is it that makes the person so powerful?
Be sure that students answer this question through the text answers, rather than authority
responses. The bases of social power and the symbols of power are good for discussion here.
2. Why is it hard to determine if power has been used ethically?
There are three questions to ask in determining whether power has been used ethically. The
questions examine: 1) whether there is a good outcome for people both inside and outside the
organization; 2) whether the rights of all parties are respected; and 3) whether all parties are
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treated fairly and equally. It is sometimes difficult to determine when all of these goals have
been met, and they can often conflict.
3. What kinds of membership (alienative, calculative, moral) do you currently have? Is the
power used in these relationships congruent?
There should be a significant difference between work related membership and social
organization membership. They could also compare classroom membership with either of the
previous examples. Students should be asked whether a single form of power is appropriate in
an organization, as Etzioni suggests.
4. As a student, do you experience yourself as powerful, powerless, or both? On what symbols
or symptoms are you basing your perception?
Answers will vary. Sometimes it is useful to analyze the family structure and where the
individual falls among siblings.
5. How does attribution theory explain the reaction supervisors can have to influence tactics?
How can managers prevent the negative consequences of political behavior?
Supervisors will react differently to influence attempts depending upon the attribution they make
for the reason for the influence attempts.
Managers can prevent the negative consequences of political behavior through having clear
policies and procedures, and through proactive communication with subordinates.
6. Are people in your work environment empowered? How could they become more
empowered?
Most of the positions that students have held are extremely powerless. It is helpful to point out
that it is not the position than renders them empowered or powerless, but the nature of the
organization.
7. Chapter 2 discussed power distance as a dimension of cultural differences. How would
empowerment efforts be different in a country with high power distance?
The empowerment goal would probably be much more difficult to initiate. "Unfreezing" the
cultural norm would be challenging, since people would believe in the legitimacy of
hierarchy.
8. Think of a person you admire. Write a newspaper feature analyzing the person’s use of power
in terms of the ideas presented in the chapter.
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This is a good task to help students learn to write in an understandable way without using too
much academic jargon.
ETHICS QUESTIONS: SUGGESTED ANSWERS
1. Which of French and Raven's five types of power has the most potential for abuse? How can
the abuse be prevented?
Any of them can be abused. One that students might not name as readily as legitimate authority
is referent power. Individuals that are charismatic have the ability to sway individuals in areas
where they often have little or no expertise. For example, why should you vote for a political
candidate because an actor or actress supports that person? Many cults also have leaders with
significant referent power. Referent power may be an ego builder for the power holder, and thus
holds potential for abuse.
2. Under what circumstances is it ethical to manipulate people for the good of the organization?
This can be compared with Machiavellianism. High Machs believe that the end justifies the
means. The ends do not justify the means. This is an abuse of power. There are numerous
examples where countries believed they were "on the right side,” and abused their power.
3. Are moral memberships the only ethical organizational memberships? That is, can alienative
and calculative memberships be ethical? Explain.
Calculative membership has aspects of social exchange theory. As long as the balance is ethical,
it could be a normative situation.
4. What are the most common forms of political behavior that you see in your work or school
environment? Are they ethical or unethical? Explain.
Students should be careful not to mention individuals by name, or the company, but the example
is what is most important. Focus their answers on behavior.
5. Is it possible to have an organization where all power is equally shared, or is the unequal
distribution of power a necessary evil in organizations? Explain.
Students may confuse the concepts of organization and reporting lines with equally shared
power. Empowerment does not take away responsibility, nor would it necessarily result in
ineffectiveness. It would most likely be inefficient, especially in the early stages. The benefits of
empowerment probably outweigh its inefficiencies in most organizations.
CHALLENGES
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10.1 ARE YOU SELF-EMPOWERED?
To go beyond the challenge, you may want to ask students to develop an action plan for
becoming more self-empowered, particularly if they scored low on this scale. This exercise
might also lead to discussion related to the types of jobs or careers individuals might be most
comfortable in given their level of self-empowerment.
EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
10.1 SOCIAL POWER ROLE PLAYS
Instructor's Notes:
The French and Raven (1959) taxonomy of bases of social power is a useful conceptual tool. In
an organizational behavior course we invariably deal with notions of power, influence, and
authority, often as a prelude to getting into issues of leadership. The distinctions among
legitimate, expert, referent, reward, punishment, and information bases of social power are also
very relevant. While the material can be presented in lectures using relevant and entertaining
illustrations, students often do not appreciate the richness of the concepts. This experiential
exercise involves students in learning the material in an active way.
Goals of the Exercise
Three things happen with the exercise: one, students get an opportunity to devise influence
attempts based on the French and Raven taxonomy; two, the class assesses the probable results of
using each kind of power; and three, the class could more clearly focus on understanding social
power at work in the class itself. This exercise is most effective one-third of the way into a
typical course, when control and influence issues are most salient.
Procedures
Divide the class into six groups of equal size, each of which is assigned one of the power bases.
(It is helpful to have three or four people who do not join a group but remain outside to assist
with data collection and tabulation.) The groups are given the same scenario, which involves one
person (a teacher) attempting to influence another person (a student). Each group has 10-15
minutes to prepare an actual influence plan using the type of power that has been assigned their
group.
You may wish to tailor the presented situations to your own needs. The following one has
worked well with undergraduate classes.
You are an instructor in a college class and have become aware that a potentially good student is
repeatedly absent from class and is sometimes unprepared when he is there. He seems to be
satisfied with the grade he is getting, but you would like to see him attend regularly, be better
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prepared, and thus, do better in the class. You even feel that the student might get really turned
on pursuing a career in this field, which is an exciting one for you. You are respected and liked
by your students, and it kind of irritates you that this person treats your dedicated teaching with
such a cavalier attitude. You want to influence the student to start attending class regularly.
This situation may be particularly useful because it allows you to discuss, at the conclusion of the
exercise, your position in the class and how that particular class might respond if you were to use
these different kinds of power.
When all groups have completed their planning, each selects one member to play the instructor.
In the development of their role play, the group has to decide where the influence attempt is to
take place (in the classroom, teacher's office, snack bar, and so forth). The group may also pick,
from their own or another group, a "student" who is to be the recipient of the "instructor's"
attempt.
While the role play is going on, the students in other groups are asked to think of themselves as
the student being influenced. They fill out the "Reaction to Influence Questionnaire." After each
presentation, all students outside the playing group record their reactions as if they were the
student being addressed by the teacher. As an option, the forms can be collected by the assistants
who tabulate the results while the next group is playing the influencer. When all groups have
presented, the aggregated response to each question by influence type can be displayed on the
board for discussion. (The assistants are helpful since the data comes in fast, and your time is
spent coordinating role playing. It's helpful for the assistants to have calculators.) The entire
activity including introductory lecture and post-exercise discussion can be completed in 50-70
minutes.
Outcomes
The data allow the generation of tentative answers to several interesting questions:
1. Which kind of influence is most likely to immediately result in the desired behavior?
2. Which will have the most long-lasting effects?
3. What effect will using a particular base of power have on the ongoing relationship?
4. Which form of power will others find most acceptable?
The group can use the answers to these questions to begin to draw a contingency framework for
the use of different kinds of power. Under what conditions will a particular kind of influence be
most effective and what will be the likely side effects?
It is fruitful to share your own reactions to the data. A typical class had the following mean
response (5 = high agreement):
Punishment
Q#2
Q#3
Q#4
Q#5
4.0
3.1
2.1
1.6
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Reward
Referent
Legitimate
Expert
Information
3.9
2.9
3.3
3.7
2.5
3.6
2.2
2.1
3.3
2.3
4.2
3.4
2.4
3.4
2.8
4.2
4.6
1.2
3.6
2.7
For this group, it is clear that you could get compliance by using punishment; however, that
would have a detrimental effect on your ongoing relationships with students. (They have power
of their own of all six types!) Likewise, using your superior role may get results but not without
relationship costs. It looks as if rewards are the most effective way to influence this group, but
you can also rely on your expertise.
Anecdotal data collected following class sessions leads to the belief that this is an effective way
of teaching the French and Raven model. Most students appear to be actively and thoughtfully
involved, and when asked to evaluate the class, give high marks.
*Adapted with permission from Gib Akin, Exchange 3, No. 4 (1978): 38-39.
10.2 EMPOWERMENT IN THE CLASSROOM
Instructor's Notes:
Stress to the students that the ideas do not have to be workable, just discussible. One of the ways
to keep the discussion moving is to ask students to keep in mind the goals and mission of the
university. This deters comments with simplified solutions like, no grades, no classes, no
teachers, etc.
ALTERNATIVE EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISE
POWER DEPENDENCY
Instructor's Notes:
The power dependency model allows students to analyze the influences on their lives. Once
students begin this exercise they are typically surprised at the number of influence and power
points that are surrounding them. Be sure to mention that work experience is not necessary to
complete this exercise. Students may choose to view the environment they are in as a student.
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A POWER /DEPENDENCY ANALYSIS OF YOUR POSITION
from R. E. Quinn, S.R. Faerman, M.P.Thompson, M.R. McGrath, Becoming a Master
Manager, A Competency Framework, Wiley and Sons, c1990, 273.
In some areas of your life you have a great deal of control over power and influence. On the
other hand, in organizations you may have little control over power.
The diagram below illustrates the network of power and influence for a hospital manager. The
degree that the manager depends on people and positions and the degree of emphasis is indicated
between the position and the hospital manager.
On a separate sheet, list your organization and provide 5 medium and 5 high dependency
categories. You may choose a position in an organization with which you have experience, or
you could analyze your position as a student or a member of your family. After you have
completed your list, answer the following questions, first to yourself, and then, if time permits, in
small groups.
1. Whom do you really depend on in the position you're analyzing? How important is
each dependency? What is the basis of each dependency?
2. Are any of these dependencies inappropriate or dysfunctional? What can you do about
that?
3. How do you maintain your own base of influence in each of these dependencies? Do
you feel you have a base of influence in each of them?
4. What kinds of power and influence do you think you need to develop further? What
resources can help you?
HOSPITAL MANAGER - EXAMPLE
HIGH DEPENDENCY
Mayor's Office
Accreditation Agency
Main employee union
Eleven smaller unions
Civil service
Affiliated medical school
MEDIUM DEPENDENCY
City Bureaucracy
State Government
Local community groups
Other hospitals in the city
Local press
Federal government
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MBTI EXERCISE
Exercise Learning Objectives:
a. Students will be able to define power and explore how they use it.
b. Students should understand that different people view the concept of power differently and
that groups get strengths from that difference.
Exercise Overview:
1. Students should have taken the MBTI or the short version in Chapter 3.
2. Students will be formed into groups based on how they perceive themselves obtaining energy.
3. Students will use the text as a reference.
Exercise Description:
a. Ask students to form groups based on E or I energy direction. Limit 6 students to a group-make enough groups so that everyone is in a group of at least 4 people.
b. The instructor asks each individual to define power.
c. The instructor has each individual review the text chapter on power and identify the types of
power they use most often.
d. The instructor now asks the groups to discuss their research; the end result will be a group
statement that defines power and identifies the most common uses of power by that group. The
instructor should ask the students to give specific examples of when and where they've used
power.
e. Report out--look for similarities and differences.
What the instructor should expect:
a. The "E" group should give the impression that power is the continual gathering and using of
information. Power is an external, organizational issue. With "Es" you will sense that power is
"overpowering" others, up front, outwardly-directed.
b. The "I" group should give the impression that power is internal, kept close to the vest, used
diligently, almost a personal issue. With "I" you will sense that power is "quietly" used, behindthe-scenes, and inwardly directed.
Instructor's Summary:
As we've pointed out, power means different things to different people. Additionally, people use
power differently even when going after the same result. Some people are very outwardly
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directed in most everything they do. These people can appear to be overpowering and, when in a
powerful position, overbearing.
Other people are more inwardly directed and hence their use of power is more subtle--kept
within. Even when in a position of power these people may give the appearance of being
unwilling to use their power.
In both instances, outward or inward use, complete understanding of the types of power and your
personal preferences of its use will help you as you enter and progress in your chosen field.
EXTRA EXPERIENTIAL EXERCISES
The following alternative exercises to supplement the material in the textbook can be obtained
from:
Marcic, Dorothy & Seltzer, Joe. Organizational Behavior: Experiences and Cases, 5th Ed.
South Western College Publishing Company, 1998.
Empowerment. p. 125-236. Time: 25-60 minutes.
Purpose: To introduce the topic of empowerment; to help individuals focus on the skills
needed to be empowering; to help individuals distinguish between what makes them feel
empowered and what makes them feel powerless.
A Simple - But Powerful - Power Simulation. p. 139-140. Time: 60 minutes or more.
Purpose: To understand power dynamics in organizations.
ROLE PLAYS
Additional role plays relevant to the material in this chapter are located in Appendix A of this
instructor's manual.