Download Roman religion

Classics 212
Spring, 2006
Ancient Rome
Professor Eric Orlin
Office: Wyatt 149
Office Hours: MWTh 10-10:50 and by appointment
Office Phone: x2717
email: [email protected]
Course Description and Objectives: Who were the Romans? And why should someone
living in the 21st century care about them? On the one hand the elements from Roman society legal systems, political structures, engineering abilities - that have been incorporated into the modern
Western tradition make them seem very familiar, but on the other hand we are separated from them
by two thousand years of history and infinite technological change. Despite these changes, the issues
that the Romans encountered are indeed similar to those that we ourselves still encounter today:
Who are we? How did we get to where we are? And where do we go from here? The best way to
learn about any people is to let them speak for themselves, and that is what we will do for the next
fifteen weeks: we will read what the Romans themselves wrote and we will analyze the material
remains that the Romans left behind. It is only through a combination of sources that we will be
able to reconstruct some hypothetical answers to our questions. We will follow the city of Rome
from a small village on the banks of the Tiber River to the dominant power in the Mediterranean
basin and from a monarchy to an aristocratic republic and back to a monarchy, and we will observe
how these changes affected Roman life and how the Romans affected the lives of all those they
encountered. By the end of our work together, dedicated study will give you a firm grasp of the
outlines of Roman history, the differences between the Romans and ourselves, and a deeper
appreciation of what ancient Roman culture has contributed, for better or for worse, to our own
civilization today.
Class Format: All of the material we are using is capable of multiple interpretations and has in
fact been used by scholars in support of different positions. Our class time therefore will be
devoted as much as possible to discussing possible interpretations of that material, rather than
lectures introducing the material. My role in this course is similar to a coach, helping you to develop
your own abilities and interpretations. Your role is to be prepared for class by introducing yourself
to the material through the assigned readings, and coming to class with questions and observations.
It is important to develop your own questions because what is ‘relevant’ or ‘meaningful’ in historical
work depends greatly on the interests and background of the individual historian, and you can only
be sure of discussing an issue of interest to you by bringing it up yourself. My classroom is
‘democratic’ in the sense that I will let you determine the direction of discussions in class, and I
expect you to assume the responsibility that goes along with that freedom.
Texts: The following required texts are available at the bookstore.
P. Jones, & K. Sidwell, The World of Rome (= Jones on the schedule)
Mellor, R., The Historians of Ancient Rome (= M on the schedule)
Coursepack (Items in the Coursepack are indicated by a CP on the schedule below.)
In an effort to save trees and save you money, we will also make use of readings that I will post
in Blackboard. These readings are indicated by a BB on the schedule below. If you have any
problems accessing these files, let me know as soon as you can. You may want to print these
out in the library, or I would be happy to create a supplementary coursepack for any who wish
to purchase it. Students should regularly check Blackboard for updates; it will also hold an array
of materials to help you with this course, as well as an archive of all materials handed out in class
1
Classics 212
Spring, 2006
Goals of the Course:
Students enrolled in this class will develop their abilities in the following areas:

Close reading
Classicists more than most academics depend on close reading, because of the scarcity of our
sources. Not only must you be able to report accurately what you have read, but you must also
be able to highlight a few key phrases that may be buried in the midst of an otherwise ordinary
paragraph. You also need to gain an accurate sense of chronological narrative, remembering
that events in 44 BCE cannot have caused events in 48 BCE, since dates BCE count down
towards zero.

Recognizing that ‘the past is a foreign country’
While the Romans appear familiar to us, their assumptions about the world, man’s place in it,
and human nature in general were vastly different from ours. You will need to understand the
scope of Roman history and become familiar with the major figures and trends that affected the
structures and belief systems of Roman civilization.

Realizing that published works have authors
This includes both primary and secondary sources, and includes paying attention to authors’
personalities, potential biases, and attempts to organize material in a certain way. Such efforts
do not mean that a source is useless, but does affect the way we should utilize that source. You
should know who wrote our textbook and be aware of how it is organized with chapters and
subheadings.

Perceiving historical theses
Closely connected with the previous point, you must recognize that historians argue about the
past, they do not merely present the past. They debate, for instance, whether Athens can truly
be called ‘democratic’, and they organize material in order to make a convincing case.

Using written sources as evidence
This is a key point: facts are not evidence. Facts only become evidence when they are brought
forward in relation to a particular thesis or explanation. Ancient literary sources provide the
bulk of evidence for the Roman world, but the scarcity of written sources means that you often
must utilize archaeological and visual evidence as well.

Stating and defending a thesis
Accurate and specific examples are the key to providing solid evidence here. Secondary source
authors often provide good models of how to construct and defend an argument. You will learn
both how to defend a thesis put forward by another scholar, and how to choose and defend
your own thesis.

Defending a thesis against counterarguments
Agreeing with one modern scholar is not enough. You must learn to recognize pitfalls in your
own argument and say why you have rejected carefully argued opposing views. Again, accurate
and specific examples and evidence are the key here.
2
Classics 212
Spring, 2006
Course Requirements: In developing their skills in historical argumentation, students will write
several short papers that will culminate in a paper of 6-8 pages on a topic of their own choosing.
We will have an argumentative position paper due at midterm rather than an exam, and we will have
a final exam comprised mostly of essay questions. We will also have quizzes every two weeks to
ensure that students are mastering the factual material of the course. In addition students will be
expected to participate actively as a good colleague in this class, which will include regular posting to
a discussion board as well as participation in classroom discussion. Each of these assignments is an
opportunity to demonstrate your preparation for class and your knowledge of the material. I will
quickly and fairly evaluate your work, but ultimately the grade you receive is based on the quality of
work you do.
 Collegiality: In essence, this part of your grade is determined by how good a colleague you are to
your fellow students. Among other things, collegiality may be demonstrated by: your on-time
arrival and attendance throughout class; preparation of the assigned readings prior to class;
bringing the assigned readings with you to class each day; active participation in all class
activities; and your ability and willingness to master the course material in a creative and
sophisticated manner. Students will also be expected to post on a discussion board prior to class
at least once per week, offering their thoughts, questions, and/or responses to the reading for
that class. I may also begin class by asking you to write down a response to a question about the
reading, and these informal writing assignments will form another part of your collegiality grade.
 A note on class participation: While many assume that participation is synonymous with talking
in class, I would encourage you to think about participation as both talking and listening. A
good colleague is one who listens to his or her colleagues, the instructor and the authors,
then adds to the existing conversation. To be a good participant, you need to listen, think
about what you have heard, and then offer your own voice to the discussion.
 Quizzes: The regular quizzes at two-week intervals will consist of a combination of the
identification of important names or terms, map questions, and chronologies. Quizzes are given
at the beginning of class, and no extra time will be allowed for people who arrive to class late.
The lowest quiz grade will be dropped from grade calculations.
 Papers: Students in this class will build up to a paper that defends a position on a particular
historical question in Roman history researched by the student. In the course of working on this
paper, students will (1) write an analysis that evaluates the reliability of a specific ancient source,
(2) write a paper that argues for a particular interpretation on the demise of the Roman Republic
(3) find and review an article on a historical subject of their own choosing. Toward the end of
the term students will submit a longer paper on the topic of their own choosing utilizing the
skills they have developed and arguing for a particular interpretation of their topic. Full details
of each assignment will be handed out separately.
Requirements summary:
Collegiality (including informal writing):
Quizzes
Article Review (due March 1)
Position Paper (due March 10)
Source Analysis (due March 28)
Research Argument (due May 3):
Final Exam:
3
20%
10%
5%
15%
10%
20%
20%
Classics 212
Spring, 2006
Please note the following general tips and policies.
 I cannot stress enough the importance of ‘reading actively’. Reading academic work takes
more than running your eyes over the words (alas . . .). To get the most out of the material and the
time you spend reading it, ask yourself the following questions as you read: What type of document
is this? Who is the author and what do we know about him/her? Who is the audience? What is the
author trying to do in this document? What evidence does the author cite? Is it convincing? How do
you relate this document to the period in which it was created? How does this document relate to
the larger issues in the class as a whole? And most importantly, what have you learned? Rather than
underlining or highlighting, force yourself to jot down notes on a separate sheet of paper, along with
any questions that the reading creates in your mind.
 Clear up any problems early. While I try to be as clear as possible, the only way I know when
I’m not being clear is when someone asks for more information. When there is something you don’t
fully understand – in class, about assignment or exam directions, or about your grade on an
assignment or exam – ask for clarification. You can do so in class, after class, during office hours, or by email.
This is as important a way for you to take responsibility for your learning as anything else that you do. In the
same way, if an unexpected crisis arises in the middle of the semester that might affect your work, it is
your responsibility to inform me as early as you can. You will find that I am quite sympathetic to
those who notify me as soon as they notice a problem, but I have a ‘tin ear’ for those who send me
an email on the morning a paper is due. How you handle such crises is an important component of
how you will be judged in the ‘real world’, and it is important in my class as well.
 The dates of the assignments given on the class schedule are firm. Following on the
previous paragraph, I do not give extensions except in cases of documented medical or family
emergency. I do this to ensure fairness for all students. Late papers are penalized one-half grade for
every day they are late. After two weeks, late papers are not accepted at all and are scored a zero.
 I will strictly enforce the University policy on academic honesty. The Academic
Handbook states: "Academic dishonesty can take many forms, including but not limited to the
following: plagiarism, which is the misrepresentation of someone else's words, ideas, research,
images, or video clips as one's own; submitting the same paper for credit in more than one course
without prior permission; collaborating with other students on papers and submitting them without
instructor permission; cheating on examinations; mistreatment of library materials; forgery; and
misuse of academic computing facilities.” Read the complete policy at:
http://www.ups.edu/dean/Handbook/honesty.html.
 Special Note on Electronic Resources: The Web is both a blessing and a curse. It provides a
great deal of information that might otherwise not be easily available, but a great deal of that
information is unreliable, since anyone can create a website and post anything they want. Items
from full-text databases (such as JSTOR) or items linked directly from Blackboard may be used
without restriction, though they should be cited appropriately. You may only use other Web
resources if you provide evidence that you have evaluated the trustworthiness of the site.
Specifically you must, in addition to the appropriate citation, provide the author’s name and
credentials, the name of the organization that publishes the website, the date the site was last
updated, and your reasons for believing the website presents objective and valid material.
Failure to provide this information will result in an automatic five-point penalty per website.
The library has developed an excellent website (http://library.ups.edu/research/handouts/eval.htm)
to assist you in evaluating the reliability of on-line material.
4
Classics 212
Spring, 2006
Class Schedule: Though I will make every effort to stick to the schedule below, it is subject to
change, especially if weather or other unusual conditions intervene.
Date
Topic and Readings
Study Questions
Jan. 18 Introduction & Overview
Jan. 20 Rome and Her History
Why do we study history? Why did
Using Historical Sources, A Sense of History: Some Livy study history? How should we
Components, The Need for Source Criticism (BB) evaluate Livy as a source?
Livy, Preface & Book I (= M, 169-186, 196-205)
Jan. 23 The Origins of Rome
How does Jones’ text attempt to use
Jones, 1-10
Livy’s account? How might the
Consult the maps of early Italy in Blackboard
geography of Italy have impacted
Locate areas of Etruscan and Greek dominance
early developments?
Jan. 25 The Republic & Struggle of the Orders
What type of society can we
Jones pp. 10-13
reconstruct from the surviving Twelve
Livy, Book III.33-37; 44-49; 56-58 (=M, 215-227) Tables? What is the relationship of
The Twelve Tables of Roman Law (CP)
that world to Livy's story?
For fun: Visit the Roman Forum
Jan. 27 The Roman System of Government
Imagine yourself as a member of a
Jones pp. 89-109, 112-121
specific group in Roman society (e.g.
Quintus Cicero, Advice on Running an Election
male non-elite, female elite, warrior,
Campaign (BB)
etc.). In what ways could you affect
Polybius, Book 6.1-9, 11-18, 56-57 (=M, 50-65)
the course of politics at Rome? What
opportunities were available to you?
Jan. 30 Roman religion
How were Roman social, political and
M. Beard, et al., Religions of Rome, 18-54 (BB)
religious systems interrelated during
Pick a festival off the list in Blackboard and be
the republic? Attempt to identify how
prepared to share information with your classmates these factors interacted in the specific
festival you investigated.
Feb. 1 The Roman Family
What kinds of relationships can you
Jones pp. 208-234
see between Roman family structures
Sources on Roman family and marriage (BB)
and socio-political structures? What
opportunities or roles were open for
Roman women?
Feb. 3 Militarism and Expansion in Italy
How was the military built into
Jones, 13-15, 121-124
Roman society? What effects might
Livy, 5.34-49 (=M, 227-241)
we anticipate this to have had? How
Livy, Book 8.13-14, on the Latin League (BB)
did Rome's rapid military expansion
Livy, Book 42.34, on Spurius Ligustinus (BB)
affect the developing state?
Feb. 6 The First Punic War
Why did the First Punic War break
Jones, 15-17
out?
Polybius, Book I.1-14; II.1-2, 7-12 (= M, 15-32)
Feb. 8 The Second Punic War
What significant differences do you
Jones, 17-18
notice in the accounts of Livy and
Polybius, Book III.1, 4, 6-17, 20-30 (= M, 32-50) Polybius? How do you account for
Livy, Book XXI.1-2, XXII.44-51 (= M, 242-243, those? How do you decide why the
271-277)
Second Punic War broke out?
Those interested in Hannibal crossing the
Map of The Second Punic War (BB)
Alps with his elephants can read M, 249-257.
5
Classics 212
Spring, 2006
Date
Topic and Readings
Feb. 10 Jones, 18-22
Livy, XXXI.1-9; XXXIII.6-10, 33-33, 38-40;
XXXIV.1-8; XXXVI.15-19; XXXVIII.37-38;
XXXIX.51 (= M, 288-320)
See map of the Hellenistic kingdoms to follow the
various campaigns. (BB)
Feb. 13 DEBATE: Roman Imperialism
W.V. Harris, “On War and Greed in the Second
Century BC.” (BB)
J. Rich, “Fear, Greed, and Glory: The Causes of
Roman War Making in the Middle Republic.” (BB)
(Readings from Roman Imperialism, ed. C.B.
Champion)
Feb. 15 Economic Changes
Jones, 22-25, 181-202
K. Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves, 1-19, 48-54 (BB)
The First Slave Revolt in Sicily (BB)
Study Questions
What patterns do you see in this
period? What did the Romans learn
from their interactions in the East
over this time? What changes might
we expect in Rome?
Feb. 20 The Tribunate of Tiberius Gracchus
Jones, 25-29
Appian, Civil Wars 1-26 (= M 65-79)
Plutarch, Tiberius Gracchus (CP)
WRITING ASSIGNMENT
Was Tiberius a shameless demagogue
seeking to overthrow Senatorial
authority, a ruthless politician seeking
personal rule, or a noble aristocrat
trying to serve the best interests of the
state (or somewhere in between)?
Bring to class a short (1-2 page) typewritten
interpretation of the career of Tiberius
Gracchus. You must include at least
three specific pieces of evidence from
the ancient sources to support your
view. We will debate this issue in
class.
Which of these two politicians had a
more lasting impact (caused more
lasting harm?) on Roman society and
the Roman system of government?
What evidence does Cicero present
concerning the conspiracy? How does
his speech to the people differ from
those delivered to the senate?
WRITING ASSIGNMENT
Bring to class a short (1-2 page) typewritten
discussion of whose argument you find more
convincing. You must include at least
two specific pieces of evidence from
the ancient sources to support your
view.
Identify what you feel to be the most
significant economic change during
this period. Given what you know
about the Romans already, how might
you expect this change to make itself
felt in other areas of Roman society?
Feb. 17 Cultural changes
What can we learn from Cato about
Jones, 172-174
what it meant to be a Roman in this
Plutarch, Cato the Elder (CP)
period or about Roman attitudes
The Magna Mater in Rome (BB)
toward Greek culture? Why did the
On the Worship of Bacchus (Livy, Book 39.8-19 & Romans treat the cults of the Magna
Senate decree on Bacchanals) (BB)
Mater and Bacchus in different ways?
Feb. 22 Marius and Sulla
Jones, 29-35, 124-133
Appian 1.55-83, 95-107 (CP)
There is a timeline of the Late Republic in BB.
Feb. 24 The Catilinarian Conspiracy
Jones pp. 39-41
Cicero, 1st Oration against Catiline (=M 117-128)
Cicero, 2nd Oration against Catiline (CP)
Cicero, Letter to Atticus I.2 (= M, 128)
6
Classics 212
Spring, 2006
Date
Topic and Readings
Feb. 27 The Catilinarian Conspiracy II
Sallust, Catilinarian Conspiracy (=M, 81-115)
Mar. 1 Pompey the Great & the First Triumvirate
Jones, 36-39
Cicero, Selected Letters 5-11, 14-16, 22, 23, 28, 35-38
Plutarch, Julius Caesar 13-14 (BB)
Mar. 3
Julius Caesar
Jones, pp. 41-43
Cicero, Selected Letters 42-43, 56, 59-61
Caesar, Civil Wars, chapters 1-18 (CP)
Timeline of Caesar’s career (BB)
Mar. 6 Civil War & Assassination
Jones, 43-44
Cicero, Sel. Letters 66-72, 81, 98, 105, 110, 112-14
Plutarch, Julius Caesar 60-66 (BB)
Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar (M, 347-381)
Mar. 8 Cleopatra and the Triumvirs
Jones, 45-48
Plutarch, Antony (CP)
Timeline, from Caesar's death to Actium (BB)
Mar. 10 DEBATE: The Fall of the Roman Republic
When and why did the Republic fail?
Study Questions
How does Sallust's presentation of
events differ from Cicero's? Why?
ARTICLE REVIEW DUE
What do Cicero’s letters reveal about
the state of politics in Rome at this
time? How can these letters be used
productively as a source?
How well can we understand from
these sources why the Civil War broke
out?
How did Caesar's story change over
the time these various documents
were written?
What are Plutarch's sources of
information? How useful is he as a
source on Cleopatra, Octavian and
Antony?
POSITION PAPER DUE
SPRING BREAK
Mar. 20 Augustus
Jones pp. 49-60, 109-11, 133-39
Augustus, Res Gestae (=M 321-330)
Ancient Comments on Augustus (BB)
Mar. 22 Augustan Social Legislation
Augustus' marriage laws & later legal commentary
(from Lefkowitz & Fant, Women's Life in Greece and
Rome, pp. 83-91) (BB)
Horace, Ode 3.6 (BB)
K. Galinsky, "The Legislation on Morals and
Marriage" in Augustan Culture (BB)
Mar. 24 Augustan Religious Program
M. Beard, et al. “The Re-placing of Roman
religion”, pp 181-210 (BB)
Horace, Secular Hymn (BB)
Inscription honoring Augustus (BB)
Mar. 27 Augustan Visual Imagery
P. Zanker, The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus,
172-223 (BB)
Art & Architecture from the Augustan Age (BB)
Mar. 29 Augustan Literature
Virgil, Aeneid, excerpts (CP)
Ovid, Amores 1.1, 1.5, 1.8, 2.4, 2.19, 3.4 (BB)
7
How does Augustus present himself
and what he had accomplished? Did
later commentators agree with his
self-presentation?
What are the key provisions of the
laws? What did their author aim to
achieve? What is Galinsky's
explanation for Augustus' persistent
interest in these statutes, even in the
face of strong opposition? What is
your explanation?
What do the religious activities of the
Augustan period reveal about Roman
society at this time? What is meant by
‘ruler cult’ and to what extent did
Augustus consciously encourage it?
SOURCE ANALYSIS DUE
How does this information change
the way you think about the empire?
How does the visual imagery relate to
the themes of the Augustan period?
How does the history of this period
affect how we read its literature?
How does the literature relate to the
history?
Classics 212
Spring, 2006
Date
Topic and Readings
Study Questions
Mar. 31 The Imperial System
What are the key elements of the
Jones, 60-78
Roman system as it evolved?
Senatorial decree on powers of Vespasian (BB)
How do the inscriptions contribute to
Tacitus, on The Principle of Adoption
a fuller understanding of the
Roman inscriptions (BB)
development of the imperial system?
Apr. 3 Nero
How do Suetonius and Tacitus
Tacitus, Annals excerpts (= M, 427-28, 498-510)
present Nero? Why? What does each
Suetonius, Nero (BB)
find most offensive about him?
Apr. 5 Romans and Jews
What was the position of Jews under
Josephus, on Jewish privileges (BB)
the Roman Empire? How does
Josephus, on the outbreak of Jewish Revolt (BB) Josephus position himself and his
Josephus, on Masada (= M, 331-345)
community relative to Roman power?
Apr. 7 Romans and Christians
What can we learn from the
Gospel Accounts of the arrest of Jesus & his
differences in the Gospel accounts?
meetings with the High Priests and Pilate (BB)
Why might the Romans have seen the
Tacitus, Annals, XV.37-44 (= M, 510-14)
Christians as a problem?
Letters of Pliny and Trajan (= M, 536-538)
Timeline of events in the rise of Christianity (BB)
Apr. 10 Romans and Mystery Religions
What are the most significant
The Gospel of Thomas (BB)
differences between these Gospels
The Gospel of Mary Magdalene (BB)
and the canonical ones? What
M.Mellowes, “ The Emergence of the Canon” (BB) similarities and differences do you see
Lucius, On initiation into the cult of Isis (BB)
between these forms of Christianity
Modern discussion of the Mithraic mysteries (BB) and the “mystery religions’?
Apr. 11 Revised Source Analysis Due
WYATT 139, 2:00 p.m.
Apr. 12 Slaves & Other Lesser Statuses
What are some key status groups into
Jones pp. 145-172
which Roman society was divided?
E. D'Ambra, Roman Art, pp. 39-57 (BB)
How were these statuses defined,
claimed or enforced, according to the
party in question?
Apr. 14 Urban Life in the Empire: Pompeii
How useful is Juvenal for trying to
Juvenal, Satire 3 (BB)
understand life in a Roman city?
A. Wallace Hadrill, Houses and Society in Pompeii and How does the use of domestic space
Herculaneum, pp. 3-37. (BB)
reflect Roman socio-political
Explore clickable map of a Roman house (BB)
structures?
Apr. 17 Bread and Circuses
In what ways did the gladiatorial
Juvenal, Satire 10 (BB)
contests function as an essential
D. Potter, “Entertainers in the Roman Empire”
element of the Roman imperial
from Life, Death and Entertainment in the Roman
system? How should we understand
Empire (BB)
their popularity?
Apr. 19 Romans and Foreigners
What does the Agricola tell us about
Tacitus, Agricola (= M, 428-450)
how Tacitus viewed the place of
Tacitus, Annals 11.23-26 (= M, 490-493)
foreigners within the Roman Empire?
For Fun: View Hadrian's Wall in England (BB)
How does it compare with Claudius’
view?
8
Classics 212
Spring, 2006
Date
Topic and Readings
Apr. 21 Romanization
R. MacMullen, “Romanization in the Time of
Augustus” (BB)
G. Woolf, “Becoming Roman” (BB)
(Readings from Roman Imperialism, pp. 215-242)
Study Questions
COMPLETED DRAFT DUE
of Research Argument
What does ‘Romanization’ mean?
How and why did this process occur?
Would you draw any lessons for
‘Americanization’ from studying this
phenomenon?
Apr. 24 The Third-Century Crisis
Research an emperor who ruled
Introduction to Third Century Crisis (BB)
during the 3rd century; be prepared to
The story of Didius Julianus
share your findings with the class. In
Consult the online Directory of Roman Emperors what way(s) was your emperor a part
of the 3rd century crisis?
Apr. 26 Diocletian and Constantine
In what ways do both Diocletian and
Diocletian and Constantine (at the directory of
Constantine remain within traditional
Roman Emperors)
boundaries of Roman behavior? In
Diocletian’s Efforts to stabilize the economy
what ways did they innovate? To
Persecution of Christians under Diocletian
what degree did the problems of their
The “Edict of Milan”
era force them to new solutions?
Apr. 28 Barbarians
Pay attention to the different authors,
Ammianus Marcellinus, “Goth Invasion” (CP)
and to the differences they present (if
Procopius, “Alaric Sacks Rome” (CP)
any) between Goths and Huns? How
Priscus, “At the court of Attila” (CP)
can one tell a barbarian from a
Jordanes, Origins and Deeds of the Goths (CP)
Roman in the 4th and 5th centuries?
May 1 The End of the Roman Empire?
How does each author choose to see
Jones, 80-81
the events of the 4th and 5th centuries?
E. Gibbon, General Observations on the Fall of
What factors might have led these
the Roman Empire (BB)
writers to reach such different
B. Bartlett, How Excessive Government Killed
conclusions? When and why did the
Ancient Rome (BB)
Roman Empire fall?
For fun: Lead and the Fall of Rome: A
Bibliography (BB)
May 3 WRAP – UP
RESEARCH ARGUMENT DUE
9