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Chapter 1
Before History
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
The history of the earth itself stretches back around five billion years. However, the human chapter of this long
story is a relatively short one; the first humanlike apes appeared roughly four million years ago. Relatively recently,
the first modern human beings made their appearance about forty thousand years ago. This chapter examines that
early period up through the increasing sophistication of the Paleolithic and Neolithic ages, when humans reached the
dawn of the establishment of complex societies.
OVERVIEW
The Evolution of Homo Sapiens
The oldest known ancestor of humans is Australopithecus, whose remains have been found in the Olduvai
Gorge in Tanzania. Australopithecus (“southern ape”) lived from around four million down to around one million
years ago. They were hominids, or members of the family Hominidae, which includes humans and humanlike
creatures. By walking on their hind legs they freed up their hands to produce simple tools. Australopithecus
traveled distances up to fifteen kilometers and produced tools such as choppers and scrapers.
Eventually Australopithecus gave way to the more advanced Homo erectus (“upright-walking human”), the first
representatives of the genus Homo. They existed from roughly 1.5 million years ago down to around two hundred
thousand years ago. Possessing a much larger brain than Australopithecus, Homo erectus was more advanced in
many areas. Homo erectus produced more sophisticated tools, such as cleavers and hand axes, and learned how to
control fire. Their greatest accomplishment, however, was the development of language skills, which allowed for
the exchange of complex concepts.
In the long term Homo erectus was replaced by a more intelligent human species: Homo sapiens (“consciously
thinking human”). With a brain almost as large as that of modern humans and with a well-developed frontal region,
Homo sapiens possessed the intelligence to have a profound impact on the world around them. Homo sapiens first
appeared roughly 250,000 years ago and had spread to most of the habitable world by around fifteen thousand years
ago. They produced knives, spears, and bows and arrows and made themselves such successful hunters that they
helped to drive species such as mammoths, woolly rhinoceroses, and giant kangaroos into extinction.
Paleolithic Society
Most of human existence falls into the period known as the Paleolithic age (“old stone age”). This period,
ranging from the first appearance of the hominids down to around twelve thousand years ago, is characterized by the
existence of humans as hunters and gatherers. Because of their nomadic lifestyle, Paleolithic groups never reached
beyond thirty to fifty members. Archeologists and anthropologists believe that there was very little social inequality
or gender distinction during this period. Late in the Paleolithic age the Natufian society of the eastern
Mediterranean, the Jomon society of central Japan, and the Chinook society of the American Pacific northwest made
an early transition from a nomadic to a more settled existence. The most sophisticated people during this time were
the Neandertal (one hundred thousand to thirty-five thousand years ago) and the Cro-Magnon (forty thousand years
ago). Elaborate Neandertal burial sites like the one at Shanidar cave in Iraq seem to indicate that humans during this
period may have wanted to honor their dead; they may also have been preparing them for an existence after death.
Cro-Magnon, classified as Homo sapiens sapiens, were the first human beings of the modern type. The existence of
Venus figurines and the elaborate cave paintings at Lascaux in France and Altamira in Spain tell us much about their
view of the world. While some of the paintings may have been done for purely aesthetic enjoyment, it is more likely
that the depiction of animals was a form of sympathetic magic to ensure success in the hunt.
The Neolithic Era and the Transition to Agriculture
Despite the sophistication of the Neandertal and Cro-Magnon, the Paleolithic age people were still limited by
their hunting and gathering existence. The discovery of agriculture (and to a lesser extent the domestication of
animals) around twelve thousand years ago helped give rise to the Neolithic age (“new stone age”). Women may
have played the most important role in the development of agriculture. This fundamental discovery changed
humans from food gatherers to food producers and helped set the stage for the rise of civilization. The mastery of
agriculture ensured a more stable food supply and helped fuel a population explosion. It is estimated that the
population of the earth increased from five million in 5000 B.C.E. to fourteen million in 3000 B.C.E. Neolithic
villages such as Jericho and Çatal Hüyük display an accelerated pace of development, with the rise of such
prehistoric craft industries as pottery, metallurgy, and textile production. The eventual rise of true cities, larger and
more complex and influential than Neolithic villages, left early humans with all the pieces necessary for the
construction of complex societies.
Chapter 2
Early Societies in Southwest Asia
and the Indo-European Migrations
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Few events in all of history can rival the significance of the rise of the first complex societies in Mesopotamia.
Although these early Mesopotamian societies relied on an agricultural foundation, they also developed true cities
and lived a thoroughly urban existence. Mesopotamia developed sophisticated political, religious, and social
structures that influenced their neighbors and have survived the millennia since.
OVERVIEW
The Quest for Order
Mesopotamia, “the land between the rivers”— in this case the Tigris and Euphrates—was the birthplace of the
world’s first complex society. The Sumerians of southern Mesopotamia were first in a series of early brilliant
cultures in southwest Asia. The cultural and linguistic landscape was enriched and complicated by Semitic
migrations. The rapidly growing population of Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium B.C.E. required the
establishment of political and social organizations. Without the benefit of earlier examples the Mesopotamians built
sophisticated political, social and military structures that allowed them to survive and in fact extend their influence
over surrounding regions. Although they never achieved political unification, the Mesopotamian city-states of
Eridu, Ur, Uruk, Lagash, Nippur, and Babylon dominated the land between the Tigris and Euphrates for a thousand
years. Warfare was common among the Mesopotamian city-states, and occasionally one ruler would temporarily
dominate his neighbors and create short-lived empires. In the twenty-fourth century B.C.E. Sargon of Akkad was the
first to unite all of Mesopotamia. A more impressive and long-lasting state would arise during the time of
Hammurabi (1792–1750 B.C.E.) and the Babylonians. Hammurabi was a powerful ruler, but he is mainly known for
his sophisticated law code. Hammurabi’s code was based on lex talionis, or the “law of retribution,” but it was also
shaped by class distinctions. Eventually a new power, the Assyrians, rose to dominate Mesopotamia and beyond.
Babylon briefly reasserted its prominence in the sixth century B.C.E. under Nebuchadnezzar.
The Formation of a Complex Society and Sophisticated Cultural Traditions
The mastery of agriculture allowed for the development of economic specialization and the expansion of trade.
Technological advancements such as innovations in bronze (4000 B.C.E.) and iron metallurgy (1300 B.C.E.), as well
as the creation of wheeled vehicles (3000 B.C.E.), also played a role in the expansion of the societies. The
Mesopotamians actively pursued long-distance trade with merchants in Arabia, Anatolia, Lebanon, Egypt,
Afghanistan, and India.
Another aspect of these developing areas was the increasing distance between the haves and have-nots of
society. Agriculture made it possible for individuals to become wealthy. The gulf between rich and poor steadily
increased, with the kings and nobles positioning themselves at the top because of their status as warriors. A
powerful priestly class, acting as intermediaries between humans and the gods, also emerged. In addition, there
arose a large slave population, drawn mainly from prisoners of war, criminals and indebted individuals. These
societies were also highly patriarchal.
In many ways the evolution of writing formed the foundation of the cultural achievements of these early
societies. The Mesopotamians, through cuneiform, began to experiment with a written language during the fourth
millennium. The significance of a written language is clearly seen in Hammurabi’s law code as well as in early
work in mathematics and astronomy and the masterful literary and mythological achievement of the Epic of
Gilgamesh. At the same time, because of the complexity of these systems, writing would for the most part remain
the province of the courtly scribes. The written records also give a glimpse at the creation of organized religion in
the region. As was the norm in the ancient world, the Mespotamians were polytheistic, with the gods mainly
representing forces of nature. The pessimistic Mesopotamian view of the gods and of people’s place in the universe
represents the precarious existence of life between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers.
The Broader Influence of Mesopotamian Society
Seldom in history has a society been as influential as the Mesopotamians. Their relationship with the Hebrews
is a classic example. The Hebrew law code was clearly influenced by Hammurabi’s code. At the same time, these
later societies built their own unique cultural achievements. The staunch monotheism of Moses was unlike anything
that came from the Mesopotamians. Yahweh, the God of the Hebrews, was both a powerful and a personal God.
This view of God would later shape the development of Christianity and Judaism. The Phoenicians, in addition to
their role as maritime explorers and merchants, invented alphabetic writing.
The Indo-European Migrations
The Mespotamians were also influenced by other societies, some from regions far beyond the boundaries of the
Tigris and Euphrates. The most important were tribes, speaking a variety of Indo-European languages, who
migrated into the region at various times during the second and third millennium B.C.E. The Indo-Europeans,
originally from the steppe region of southern Russia, left a common linguistic foundation from India through
Western Europe. Languages such as Sanskrit, Old Persian, Greek, Latin, Hindi, and Farsi as well as most European
languages were descendants of the Indo-European language. These tribes had domesticated the horse by around
4000 B.C.E. The most influential Indo-European migrants into the area around Mesopotamia were the Hittites, who
settled in central Anatolia around 2000 B.C.E. Their construction of light, horse-drawn chariots and their mastery of
advanced iron metallurgy made them formidable warriors. These innovations did not exist in a vacuum, however,
and other peoples quickly borrowed them. The Indo-Europeans eventually traveled east to the Tarim Basin in
western China, west to Greece, Italy, Germany, and France, and south into Persia and India.
Chapter 3
Early African Societies and the Bantu Migrations
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
It could be argued that no society in the ancient world possesses the mystique of Egypt. The image of the
pyramids is indelibly etched in our collective imagination. However, Egypt’s relation to its African neighbors, most
notably Nubia, is often overlooked. Both societies developed an agricultural foundation and later large cities. Both
areas developed sophisticated political, religious and social structures. Eventually the Bantu migrations would
transform most of Africa.
OVERVIEW
Early Agricultural Society in Africa
Twelve thousand years ago the area we now recognize as the Sahara Desert was a grassy steppe region with
agricultural potential. By around 8000 B.C.E. early inhabitants of the Sudan stretch began to cultivate sorghum and
yams. Eventually a climatic change around 5000 B.C.E. forced the inhabitants into the Nile valley. From this point
its really impossible to separate the history of the Nile from that of the Egyptians and Nubians. The Nile fostered
trade and early unification. Around 4000 B.C.E. small kingdoms developed in southern Egypt and Nubia. The
Egyptians, unlike their contemporaries the Mesopotamians, unified early under the legendary king Menes and
eventually created the political and cultural grandeur of the Old (2660-2160 B.C.E.) and Middle (2040-1640 B.C.E.)
Kingdoms. As far back as the Old Kingdom Egypt traded, and sometimes fought, with Nubian kingdoms like TaSeti and Kush. The Hyksos arrived at the end of the Middle Kingdom and introduced new concepts such as horsedrawn chariots and bronze weapons. Egypt rose to the level of empire during the New Kingdom (1550-1070 B.C.E.).
In the eighth century B.C.E. a revival of Kushite power saw King Kashta conquer and rule Egypt for over a century.
Eventually a new power, the Assyrians, pushed out the Kushites and brought Egypt into their expanding empire.
The Formation of Complex Societies and Sophisticated Cultural Traditions
Although the picture is less distinct in Nubia, we know that both societies developed true cities and lived an
urban existence. Social classes developed as the gulf between rich and poor steadily increased. As with
Mesopotamia, the kings and nobles claimed power and prestige because of their status as warriors. A large slave
population developed. Both Egyptian and Nubian societies were highly patriarchal. Some women however, most
notably Hatshepsut, became pharaohs in Egypt. Nubia had many female rulers, both through direct rule and
indirectly through serving as a regent (kandake). The mastery of agriculture allowed for the development of
economic specialization and the expansion of trade. Innovations in bronze and iron metallurgy were key. Egyptians
actively pursued long-distance trade, ranging from Harappan India to the East African land of Punt.
The Egyptians, through hieroglyphics (Greek for “holy inscriptions”), began to experiment with a written
language during the fourth millennium. At the same time, because of the complexity of these systems, writing
would for the most part remain the province of the courtly scribes. Still, education carried the potential for a
profitable profession. The Kushites, from their capital at Meroe, copied the Egyptian hieroglyphs and adapted them
to create Meroitic writing. Unfortunately, this form of writing cannot be read. Egyptian written records give us
glimpse of their religious beliefs. With one brief exception, the Egyptians were polytheistic with the gods mainly
representing forces of nature. The stable life of the Egyptians in the isolated Nile valley is expressed in their
optimistic view of the gods. Even mummification expressed the Egyptians’ desire to continue the pleasure of this
life in the next. Pharaoh Akhenaten introduced the revolutionary concept of monotheism with his worship of the
god Aten, but this belief was quickly squelched after his death. The lack of written records limits our knowledge of
the Nubian religious beliefs, although we get a glimpse at gods such as the lion-god Apedemak and the creator god
Sebiumeker. The Nubians, like their northern neighbors, worshipped Amon and built pyramids, albeit small ones.
Bantu Migrations and Early Agricultural Societies
of Sub-Saharan Africa
The Bantu, probably because of population pressures, began to migrate out of an area near modern Nigeria
and Cameroon around 3000 B.C.E. A mastery of agriculture gave the Bantu an advantage over their hunting and
gathering rivals. Agricultural surpluses, along with a mastery of the canoe, obviously benefited the Bantu. During
the middle of the first millennium B.C.E. the Bantu mastered iron metallurgy and they spread this skill throughout
Africa by their migrations. In the same way the Bantu spread the cultivation of grains and yams throughout east and
South Africa. The Bantus also spread their belief in a single impersonal divine force that had created the world and
then stepped back from it.
Chapter 4
Early Societies in South Asia
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
India is a country with an extraordinarily brilliant, in some ways almost unmatched, cultural and religious
tradition. At the same time the Indian political world, marred by fragmentation and invasion, has been chaotic.
India is also one of the oldest societies, with the unique Harappan civilization stretching back to at least 2500 B.C.E.
The arrival of the Indo-European Aryans around 1500 B.C.E. brought profound political, religious and cultural
change. Eventually the combination of native Dravidian and Aryan concepts gave rise to a rich and varied
intellectual world. Hinduism, the dominant religion in India, is the best example of this evolving process.
OVERVIEW
Harappan Society
The Harappan society, centered around the cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, extends back to around
3000 B.C.E. While their written records can not yet be read with any certainty, it is assumed that they spoke a
Dravidian language. These sites, in relation to their size and layout, are the largest for their age and unlike any other
cities of the ancient world. Mohenjo-Daro possessed a population of up to 40,000. Religiously their main gods and
goddesses were fertility deities, and there is evidence that these figures and concepts survived in various forms in
later Hinduism. Population pressures and ecological degradation led to their decline around 2000 B.C.E.
The Indo-European Migration and Early Aryan India
The total collapse of the Harappan society coincided with the arrival into India of an Indo-European tribe,
the Aryans (“noble people”). The Indo-Europeans, originally from the steppe region of southern Russia, left a
common linguistic foundation from India through Europe. Languages such as Sanskrit, Old Persian, Greek, Latin,
Hindi, Farsi, and most European languages are descendants of Indo-European. Aryans subdued the native
Dravidians, but also fought amongst themselves. Eventually the Aryans, arguably the first people to domesticate
horses, came to rely more on agriculture than herding. They also began to establish more structured political
institutions and built regional kingdoms, but never came close to substantial political unification. Much of our
information about the Aryans comes from the collection of religious hymns known as the Vedas, especially the Rig
Veda.
Eventually the Aryans established the caste system in India. The Aryans used the term varna, meaning
color, to refer to the different social classes, which leads scholars to assume that the first distinctions may have been
based on race. By around 1000 B.C.E. the four main castes were the brahmins (priests), kshatriyas (warriors and
nobles), vaishyas (artisans and merchants), and shudras (peasants and serfs). A few centuries later the untouchables
were added. Eventually thousands of sub-castes (jati), based mainly on occupation, would arise. The society would
remain staunchly patriarchal as expressed in the Lawbook of Manu and by the practice of sati.
Religion in the Vedic Age
The religious views of the Aryans at the time of their entry into India are best expressed in the Rig Veda.
Indra, a violent and militaristic storm god, was the main god in the early days of the Aryans. Questions of ethical
behavior were not completely ignored. Varuna watched over human behavior and sent sinners to the House of Clay
and rewarded the virtuous by admitting them into the World of the Fathers. The most important aspects of these
early religious views centered around the performance of rituals, many of them dealing with sacrifice.
Eventually some Aryans, both dissatisfied by the rituals and inspired by Dravidian notions such as
reincarnation, brought about a startling transformation of religious thought. The best indication of this evolution of
Aryan religion is the collection of writings known as the Upanishads. The emphasis shifted away from the heroic
adventures of Indra and towards an examination of the relationship between every individual and Brahma, the
universal soul. Concepts such as samsara, the transmigration of the soul, and karma, the sum of good and bad deeds
that would determine one’s position in the next life, came to dominate Indian thought. As expressed in the
Upanishads, the main goal was to escape the pain and suffering of eternal rebirth and reach the state of moksha.
Asceticism and meditation were the two principal means of achieving this goal. Indian religious thinkers
emphasized that the material world was an illusion and stressed the virtues of self-control, mercy and honesty.
Pacifism and vegetarianism played a role in this life.
Chapter 5
Early Society in East Asia
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Human beings have inhabited east Asia since at least two hundred thousand years ago. The domestication
of rice began around 7000 B.C.E., and Neolithic societies such as the Yangshao rose in the valley of the Yellow River
by approximately 5000 B.C.E. Early dynasties such as the Xia, Shang, and Zhou saw the rise of a distinctive and in
many ways uniquely secular society. Politically, none of the early dynasties achieved centralization until the Qin
unification in 221 B.C.E. Nevertheless, despite centuries of unstable political decentralization and at times outright
warfare, the Chinese moved inexorably toward the establishment of a remarkably sophisticated political and social
structure. Works such as the Zhou classics, and especially the Book of Songs, remained the foundations of Chinese
thought for centuries.
OVERVIEW
Political Organization in Early China
The first societies in China developed along the fertile banks of the Yellow River, despite the fact that its
long history of devastating flooding has earned it the nickname “China’s Sorrow.” The Yangshao society, centered
around the neolithic village at Banpo, provides the earliest complete archeological evidence. Around 2200 B.C.E. the
first recognized dynasty in Chinese history, the Xia, began in the Yellow River valley. Until the recent discovery of
sites such as Erlitou, however, this dynasty has been more legend than reality. Much more is known about the
Shang dynasty, which lasted from 1766 to 1122 B.C.E. Sites such as Ao and Yin provide valuable information,
especially the large and elaborate tombs of the rulers. At the heart of Shang power was their monopolization of
bronze metallurgy, which allowed for the rise of a powerful military state.
With the rise of the Zhou dynasty (1122–256 B.C.E.) the main streams of Chinese civilization come into
much sharper focus. Many of the foundations of Chinese thought and society came into existence during the Zhou
period. One of the most important is the concept of the mandate of heaven, which proposed that heavenly powers,
although indistinct, granted emperors the power to govern. Consequently, the emperors served as a connection
between heaven and earth and had to therefore maintain high standards of honor and justice as well as provide order.
In practice this theory never achieved more than decentralized authority during the Zhou period. Eventually the
Zhou emperors lost control to regional princes, best shown through the imperial failure to monopolize iron
metallurgy, and this loss of power resulted in a long period of political decline. As early as 771 B.C.E. the western
half of the empire collapsed, and the last two centuries are known as the “Period of the Warring States.” Order was
not restored until the rise of the Qin dynasty in 221 B.C.E.
Society and Family in Ancient China
As early as the Xia dynasty the royal family rose to a prominent social position. The largely decentralized
political structure of the Shang and Zhou periods allowed for the rise of a powerful aristocratic element. Craftsmen
and merchants, fueled by a long-distance trade that extended back to the Xia period, held important positions in
society. In this society, as in other early societies, the vast majority of the population was made up of peasants and
slaves. The extended family unit played a crucial role in Chinese society, partly because of the profound influence
of the veneration of ancestors. This practice led to a strong sense of family solidarity and eventually translated into
a strong patriarchal system. Without an organized religion or powerful priestly class, it fell to the patriarchal leader
to carry out the rites designed to honor the family’s ancestors.
Early Chinese Writing and Cultural Development
China, unlike most of the other ancient societies studied so far, created a distinctive secular cultural
tradition. While recognizing the importance of heavenly support for the emperor, the early Chinese never developed
these ideas into a firmly structured religious tradition. This attitude is seen clearly in Confucius’s admonition to
revere the gods while also keeping a distance from them. Writing, which goes back to at least the Shang period,
played an important role in the formation of the Chinese cultural framework. Most of the early evidence of Chinese
writing comes from the hundreds of thousands of Shang oracle bones. Although they were designed as a means of
divination, the bones also provide valuable information about Chinese writing and thought.
Despite (or maybe because of) the political chaos of the Zhou dynasty, this period served as the foundation
for many of China’s cultural and literary traditions. Thinkers during this period tried to find order in a seemingly
anarchic world and produced important contributions such as the Zhou classics. Collections such as the Book of
Changes, the Book of History, and the Book of Rites remained seminal works for thousands of years. The most
important of these Zhou classics is the Book of Songs, that dealt with famous kings and heroes, but also crucial
social and political issues that were near to the hearts of the common people.
Ancient China and the Larger World
Although geographical isolation stood in the way of the establishment of long-lasting or stable longdistance trade, China nevertheless influenced its neighbors. The nomadic tribes of the north and west, the early
ancestors of the Turks and Mongols, traded and sometimes warred with the Chinese. Because of environmental
differences, however, the nomadic tribes of the north and west did not imitate Chinese traditions as thoroughly as
did the peoples of southern China. Eventually peoples in the south such as the state of Chu grew to be competitors
to the Zhou.
Chapter 6
Early Societies in the Americas and Oceania
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Seldom in history have societies been as influenced by changing climatic conditions as the early cultures of
the Americas and Oceania. The lowering of water levels allowed for the initial exploration and settlement of these
areas, whereas the melting of the glaciers around twenty thousand years ago worked to leave these societies isolated.
The result was the rise of totally unique and fascinating societies. It would be centuries before a downside to this
unmatched isolation—increased susceptibility to disease—would manifest itself with the appearance of invaders.
OVERVIEW
Early Societies of Mesoamerica
The Olmecs were the first recognized society in Mesoamerica. Olmec civilization stretches as far back as
1200 B.C.E. and featured important political and religious centers such as San Lorenzo, La Venta, and Tres Zapotes.
Colossal humanlike heads, sculpted from basalt, remain their most characteristic creation. Their invention of a
calendar was later copied by succeeding Mesoamerican societies. There is no evidence of a complete system of
writing, although scholars suspect that the Olmecs experimented with writing and used written symbols to store
information. Although the situation is still a mystery, it is believed that the Olmecs destroyed their own centers at
San Lorenzo and La Venta. By 400 B.C.E. the Olmecs were clearly in a state of decline.
Mesoamerican civilization reached its peak with the flowering of the Maya from 300 to 900 C.E. Tikal,
with a population of around forty thousand, was one of several important Mayan capitals in a politically fragmented
landscape. The Maya made important contributions in astronomy, which played a pivotal role in their efforts to
foretell the future. Their calendar was the most precise in the Americas and was one of the most accurate and
complex in the world. Math, based on a vigesimal system, proved to be a strong point for the Maya. Like the
ancient Babylonians and the Hindu scholars of India, the Maya invented the concept of zero. The Maya also
developed the most sophisticated and comprehensive writing system in the Americas. Tragically, many of the
Mayan books were destroyed by the later conquistadores. Fortunately the Mayan epic of creation and heroism, the
Popol Vuh, survived in an oral tradition. While probably related to constant warfare, overpopulation, and ecological
degradation, the collapse of the Maya after 900 C.E. still remains in many ways a mystery.
Along with the Maya, the other great Mesoamerican heir to the Olmecs were the people of the massive city
of Teotihuacan. At its peak, between 400 and 600 C.E., Teotihuacan had a population of almost two hundred
thousand people. Included in the city was the Pyramid of the Sun, the single largest building in Mesoamerica; it was
two-thirds the size of the great pyramid of Khufu in Egypt. It is thought that these people developed a complete
system of writing, but only a few examples remain in stone carvings to hint at the complexity and sophistication.
Early Societies of South America
By as early as 12,000 B.C.E. people had begun to migrate into South America and by 7000 B.C.E. they had
made it all the way to the southern tip. Still, much of this early history remains shrouded in mystery. For example,
historians know that a new religion, the Chavin cult, became very popular in the years after 1000 B.C.E. However,
the true nature of the Chavin cult is still not completely known. The Chavin cult, with its emphasis on maize and
fertility, does show the increasing importance of agriculture in the lives of the early South American tribes.
The earliest South American state was the Mochica. Although these people had no system of writing,
which was typical for South America, the brilliant artwork of the Mochica tells us much about their culture and
society. Mochica pottery remains among the most expressive and sophisticated ever created. Elaborate ceramic
heads represent portraits of individuals’ heads as well as those of the gods and demons. The artwork also speaks of
the complexity of Mochica society, with representations of people ranging from aristocrats to beggars.
Early Societies of Oceania
Australia and New Guinea were visited by humans as early as forty thousand to fifty thousand years ago.
Limited migration, mainly because of low water levels, also stretched out as far as the Solomon Islands. The
aboriginal population of Australia remained hunters and gatherers while the tribes of New Guinea developed
agriculture. Exploring and settling Oceania fell to Austronesian-speaking tribes from southeast Asia. This language
group is related to Malayan, Indonesian, Filipino, Polynesian, and the Malagasy language of Madagascar. By as
early as 4000 B.C.E. these tribes began to sail out into the Pacific, eventually reaching Vanuatu (2000 B.C.E.), Samoa
(1000 B.C.E.), Hawai`i (first century B.C.E.) and New Zealand (middle of the first millennium C.E.). The
Austronesians, arguably the most skilled and daring sailors in history, established agricultural societies and left
political, religious, and cultural influences.
Chapter 7
The Empires of Persia
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Classical Persian society has its origins in the sixth century B.C.E. with the rise of the dynasty of the
Achaemenids (558–330 B.C.E.) under Cyrus the Great. Later rulers such as Cambyses, Darius, and Xerxes created
the largest, most stable, and in many ways most tolerant empire of its age. The Persian political, social, and
religious influences transcended the centuries. Eventually the Achaemenids were followed by the Seleucids (323–
83 B.C.E.), the Parthians (247 B.C.E.–224 C.E.), and finally the Sasanids (224–651 C.E.). When the Sasanids were
defeated by Islamic invaders in 651 a new age in Persian history dawned.
OVERVIEW
The Rise and Fall of the Persian Empires
Two related Indo-European tribes, the Persians and Medes, migrated into Persia in the centuries before
1000 B.C.E. Although these tribes originally had limited political organization, they were great horsemen and
militarily powerful. Expansion began under the Achaemenids during the reign of Cyrus, known both for his
brilliance at military strategy and his enlightened and tolerant view of empire. Areas such as Media, Lydia, Bactria,
and Babylonia fell to Cyrus. Later Cambyses added Egypt, and Darius, the greatest of all Persian kings, extended
the empire in the east into northern India and in the west into Thrace and Macedonia. The Achaemenids used an
efficient bureaucracy and an elaborate spy network to maintain order. The empire reached its peak under Darius,
who made use of regularized tax levies, centralized coinage, and an elaborate law code. The Persian Royal Road
was the centerpiece of an expansive road system that allowed for easy communication.
The Achaemenid state began to decline under Xerxes, who displayed little of the toleration of his
predecessors such as Cyrus or Darius. The Persian Wars (500–479 B.C.E.) with Greece, while hardly a devastating
defeat for the huge Persian empire, marked an end to the period of expansion. Alexander of Macedon’s invasion in
334 B.C.E. brought about the end of Achaemenid rule. Alexander claimed the Persian kingship and hence a
continuation of power, but his early death prevented any true, lasting unification. The empire fell to pieces.
Seleucus, one of Alexander’s generals, started the Seleucid state, which included most of the old Achaemenid
Empire. The Seleucids eventually fell to the Romans in 83 B.C.E. Even before this, however, the Seleucids had lost
Iran to the Parthians and their most powerful king, Mithridates I. The Parthian state, centered around Ctesiphon,
lasted until their conquest by the Sasanids in 224 C.E. Claiming to be the true heirs of the Achaemenids, the
Sasanids would reach their peak under Shapur I. For a time the Sasanids stood as serious rivals to the later Romans.
Arabic warriors brought about the end of the Sasanid dynasty in 651 C.E.
Imperial Society and Economy
The demands of empire forced the Achaemenids to leave behind the simple political and social structures
of their early nomadic past. To run an empire the size of the Persian state it was necessary to create a class of
educated bureaucrats, including tax collectors, record keepers, and translators. A more sedentary agricultural
existence led to the rise of profound differences between rich and poor. A complex society of both free citizens and
slaves developed. The formation of such a huge, unified empire was a tremendous boost to trade. A rich trade
network carried goods through the Persian empires from India, Mesopotamia, Iran, Anatolia, Phoenicia, Arabia,
Greece, Ethiopia, and Egypt.
Religions of Salvation in Classical Persian Society
In addition to items such as grain, textiles, spices, gold, and ivory, religious concepts were traded back and
forth across the Persian empires. In their early stages the Persians worshipped nature gods and performed
ceremonies similar to those of their Indo-European cousins in India, the Aryans. A profound change occurred
through the philosophies of the seventh-century thinker Zarathustra. His philosophy was preserved by priests,
known as magi, through the Avestas and Gathas. Zarathustra saw the universe and the human soul as a battleground
between Ahura Mazda, who represented good and truth, and Angra Mainyu, who stood for evil and deception. This
philosophy emphasized the significance of every individual’s choice because there would be a final judgment.
Zarathustra did not tell his followers to renounce the world, but instead viewed the world as a material blessing from
Ahura Mazda. Zoroastrianism eventually became the main religion of the Achaemenids but mainly spread
throughout the empire on its own merits. The Sasanids later used Zoroastrianism as a means of emphasizing their
connection to the earlier Achaemenids. Although worship of Zoroastrianism declined after the Islamic invasion in
the seventh century C.E., the main philosophies of Zarathustra survived the centuries and influenced Judaism,
Christianity, and Islam.
Chapter 8
The Unification of China
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
The four centuries from 221 B.C.E. to 220 C.E. brought extensive political, social, and intellectual change to
China. Confucianism, Legalism, and Daoism were philosophies that grew out of the confusing final days of the
Zhou dynasty and profoundly influenced this age. In 221 B.C.E. the emperor Qin Shihuangdi brought unification to
China for the first time. Although the Qin empire lasted barely two decades, it laid the foundation for lasting
political success and cultural brilliance under the Han dynasty. The Han, through the efforts of Liu Bei and Han
Wudi, carried on the centralizing policies of Qin Shihuangdi while replacing the harsh Legalism with a more
traditional Confucian approach. Despite the political and cultural success of the Han dynasty, terrible economic
times and a dramatic widening of the gap between rich and poor led to the collapse of the dynasty.
OVERVIEW
In Search of Political and Social Order
The political chaos of the later Zhou period led many Chinese thinkers to reconsider the basic questions of
social and political order. This intellectual foment provided the motivation for a rich philosophical age. The most
influential of these thinkers was Kong Fuzi (Confucius), whose practical philosophy is best expressed in the
Analects. Confucius believed that the proper balance and order in human relationships would bring about social and
political harmony. He worked to create junzi, “superior individuals,” who would possess the needed education and
dedication to staff governmental positions. Certain core values such as ren (benevolence), li (propriety), and xiao
(filial piety) were central to Confucius’s philosophy. It was difficult for later Chinese thinkers to escape
Confucius’s lengthy shadow. The most influential of these post-Confucian thinkers was Mencius. He believed that
human nature was essentially good and therefore called for a government based on benevolence and humanity to
bring out this goodness. Others, such as Xunzi, took a different approach. Xunzi believed that humans were
naturally selfish and called for a government ready to impose harsh social discipline. Even though Mencius and
Xunzi held opposing views of human nature they still operated within the traditional Confucian framework.
This turbulent age inspired other philosophical schools as well. Laozi is traditionally accepted as the
founder of Daoism. The Daoists criticized the social activism of the Confucians and instead proposed a life of
reflection and introspection. The Daoists, like other Chinese thinkers, discussed the importance of living in
accordance with the dao (way), although the definition often varied. In this instance the Daoists discussed wuwei, a
removal from the world. Instead of action, the Daoists suggested inaction. The last influential Chinese school of
thought is Legalism. Thinkers such as Shang Yang and Han Feizi wrote persuasively on statecraft and suggested
that the state’s foundation were the armed forces and agriculture and that clear and strict laws were essential to
control human nature.
The Unification of China
Although Legalism was undeniably harsh, it also proved essential for the unification of China. The Qin
from western China, inspired by Legalist philosophers such as Shang Yang and Han Feizi, created a centralized
imperial administration that was responsible for the first unification of China. Qin Shihuangdi, the “First Emperor,”
united China in 221 B.C.E. by crushing local autonomy and centralizing authority. He standardized laws, currencies,
weights, and measures and built an extensive network of roads that unified the country. Arguably his most
important achievement in standardization related to the establishment of one Chinese script. Even the splendor of
his magnificent tomb has transcended the centuries. His harsh rule, including the burning of books, execution of
scholars, and drafting of millions for huge public works projects such as the precursor to the Great Wall of China,
inspired resistance and the Qin state collapsed quickly.
A centralized state did not disappear with the Qin, however. The Han dynasty, started by Liu Bang in 206
copied many of the Qin governmental techniques but replaced the Qin use of Legalist terror with a more
traditional Confucian approach. The Han dynasty reached its peak under the “Martial Emperor,” Han Wudi (141–87
B.C.E.). In addition to overseeing a period of territorial expansion, Han Wudi opened the imperial university
designed to prepare young men for government service. The Confucian scholars that this system generated poured
into the government and formed one of the foundations of Chinese political greatness for centuries.
B.C.E.,
From Economic Prosperity to Social Disorder
During the Qin and Han periods China remained strongly patriarchal in its social structure. Works such as
the Classic of Filial Piety and Admonitions for Women stressed the dominant role of males in society. Trade, fueled
by iron metallurgy and silk manufacture, made for a period of general economic prosperity. However, a rapidly
expanding population and a widening gap between rich and poor led to tremendous social disruption. The
usurpation and reforms of Wang Mang (9–23 C.E) are emblematic of the societal pressures. The Later Han dynasty
collapsed in 220 C.E. and centuries passed before true unification was reestablished.
Chapter 9
State, Society, and the Quest for Salvation in India
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Beginning around 500 B.C.E. India developed a classical society with political, religious, and social features
that continued to influence the subcontinent for centuries. The creation of two new religions, Buddhism and
Jainism, and the continuing evolution of a third, the older Hinduism, left India with an astonishingly complex
religious landscape. The caste system ensured a well-defined social structure, but even in this area developments in
trade and industry threatened the traditional hierarchy. India unified for the first time, but centralized government
proved fleeting and the Indians were unable to leave a political legacy to match the religious one. Nevertheless, the
Mauryans, under Chandragupta Maurya and Ashoka Maurya, and the Guptas, under Chandra Gupta II, created
powerful and influential states. Works such as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavad Gita are
representative of one of the great cultural flowerings in world history.
OVERVIEW
The Fortunes of Empire in Classical India
Even under the Aryans India had never moved toward unification and remained a series of small kingdoms.
Profound changes began around 520 B.C.E. when the arrival of Cyrus the Achaemenid brought increasing Persian
trade and the introduction of new techniques of administration. Alexander of Macedon’s invasion in 327 B.C.E.
brought chaos and created a political vacuum. The void would be filled by Chandragupta Maurya who founded the
Mauryan dynasty in 321 B.C.E. Chandragupta Maurya’s harsh centralizing philosophy, as expressed in the
Arthashastra, ensured that India would be united for the first time. The Mauryans reached their peak under Ashoka
Maurya, who completed the process of unification with the bloody conquest of the Kalingans. Ashoka Maurya built
roads, promoted agriculture, collected taxes efficiently, and created a well-run bureaucracy in Pataliputra. He is best
remembered for his conversion to Buddhism and his efforts to make it a world religion. The Mauryans collapsed
fairly quickly after the death of Ashoka, and India was not reunified until almost five hundred years later. Rulers
such as Chandra Gupta II witnessed a brilliant cultural age, but overall the Guptas never approached the level of
centralized authority reached by the Mauryans. Invaders such as the White Huns helped to bring an end to Gupta
power beginning in the fifth century C.E., and India would not be reunited again for another thousand years.
Economic Development and Social Distinctions
The growth of trade and manufacturing encouraged the rise of towns. Increasing long-distance trade
between India and the larger imperial states in China, Persia, and southwest Asia led to greater economic and
cultural integration. Economic transformation did not change everything immediately. India remained strongly
patriarchal, and works such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana portrayed women as weak-willed. Child marriages
became increasingly common. In other areas, however, economic pressures were bringing an evolution of society.
Guilds essentially served as subcastes (jati) and played a role in shaping the social order. Some vaishyas and
shudras grew wealthy enough through trade or industry to challenge the brahmans and kshatriyas, the traditional
leaders of society.
Religions of Salvation in Classical India
This economic transition had tremendous religious implications because some thinkers began to question
the authority of the brahmans and the validity of traditional religious beliefs. The Charvada sect, for example,
believed that all gods were figments of the imagination and that the brahmans were charlatans. Other thinkers took
a more spiritual approach, but still came up with answers that shook the foundations of traditional Hindu thought
and in some cases created new religions. The Jains, inspired by Vardhamana Mahavira, believed that everything in
the universe possessed a soul and therefore practiced ahimsa (nonviolence to other living things). While their
ascetic lifestyle was too strict to attract a mass following, they provided a definite challenge to Hinduism by refusing
to recognize social distinctions based on caste. A much more popular religion was the Buddhism of Siddhartha
Gautama. The Buddha preached the Four Noble Truths: (1) life is pain, (2) this pain is caused by desire, (3)
eliminating desire eliminated suffering, and (4) and following the Noble Eightfold Path eliminated desire. The Noble
Eightfold Path called for leading a balanced and moderate life and avoiding extremes. Passionless Nirvana was the
final goal. From this simple beginning Buddhism eventually grew more complex and a split develoedp between the
Mahayana (“greater vehicle”) and Hinayana (“lesser vehicle”) schools. Although Hinduism predated Buddhism and
Jainism, it too went through a period of transition during these years. The traditional power of the brahmans was
challenged by the evolution of concepts that appealed to a much wider audience. Religious and literary classics such
as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavad Gita from this period express this change.
Chapter 10
Mediterranean Society: The Greek Phase
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Arguably no society has cast a longer shadow over the Mediterranean, European, and American worlds
than that of the ancient Greeks. The influences of Greek democracy, tragedy, and philosophy continue to shape
minds today. At the core of the Greek mind was an inquiring spirit and refusal to accept anything less than the truth.
After escaping near disaster in the Persian War, the Greeks went on to create one of the world’s most glorious
cultural epochs. In the end, unfortunately, the Greeks’ own arrogance and warlike manner led to their destruction in
the Peloponnesian War. The conquests of Alexander of Macedon created the Hellenistic age and a perpetuation of
Greek brilliance.
OVERVIEW
Early Development of Greek Society
The early Mycenaeans were influenced by the extraordinary Minoan society centered around the city of
Knossos on Crete. For example, the earliest Greek writing style, Linear B, was adopted from the Minoan Linear A.
Egyptian and Phoenician concepts also reached the Mycenaeans indirectly through their contact with the Minoans.
The Mycenaeans were warlike and spent much of their time fighting among themselves as well as launching
campaigns against the Minoans in Crete and the Trojans in Anatolia. Considering their contentious nature, it is not
surprising that the Mycenaeans never unified and instead settled into an uneasy alliance of city-states. The citystate, or polis, remained the foundation for the Greek political world throughout their history. Of the many poleis,
the two most important were Sparta and Athens. The Spartans, because of the fear of an uprising by the helots,
reworked their society to remove all social distinctions and eventually became the greatest soldiers of the Greek
world. The Athenians, while exhibiting little of the characteristic calm of the Spartan character, gave the world gifts
such as democracy and tragedy. Athens reached its peak during the fifth century B.C.E. under the leadership of
Pericles.
Greece and the Larger World
The inquiring spirit that marked Greek philosophical thought also carried over into exploration. Greek
mariners explored widely and set up extensive colonies that would have, if the Greeks had been able to unify, turned
the Mediterranean into a Greek lake. In addition to playing a key role in trade, these explorations helped spread the
Greek language and cultural traditions around the Mediterranean. Expansion also brought the Greeks into conflict
with the Persian Empire. The Persian War, while serving mainly as an annoyance to the Persians, turned out to be
the turning point in Greek history. Unfortunately, the Greek inability to unify eventually led to a bloody civil
conflict, the Peloponnesian War that brought an end to the golden age of Greece. The Greeks were so weakened
that they easily fell to the Macedonian leader Philip II. Eventually, however, the conquests of Philip’s son
Alexander laid the groundwork for the Hellenistic age by spreading Greek culture from Egypt to India. Alexandria
in Egypt would serve as the center for this new age. Politically Alexander was not so fortunate, and his empire split
up among the Antigonids, Ptolemies, and Seleucids.
The Fruits of Trade: Greek Economy and Society
Trade, in addition to making the Greeks wealthy, fostered a sense of unity among the different poleis.
Panhellenic festivals such as the Olympic games achieved the same goal. Greek society, despite the occasional
efforts of writers such as Sappho, remained strictly patriarchal. Sparta provided women the greatest opportunity for
freedom in the Greek world. As in the rest of the ancient world, slavery in Greece played an important economic
role.
The Cultural Life of Classical Greece
While building on Mesopotamian, Egyptian, and Phoenician traditions, the Greeks branched off to leave a
lasting cultural legacy. Philosophically the Greeks attempted to construct a system based on pursuing the truth at all
costs through human reason. Socrates’ proposal that “The unexamined life is not worth living” perfectly represents
the Greek quest for truth. Plato turned inward to the World of Forms for intellectual perfection. While writing on
fields as varied as biology, astronomy, psychology, politics, and ethics, Aristotle created a worldview so
comprehensive that he became known as “the master of those who know.” Playwrights such as Aeschylus,
Sophocles, and Euripides examined the parameters of human nature. Later Hellenistic philosophical schools also
examined the role of the individual in relation to society.
Chapter 11
Mediterranean Society: The Roman Phase
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
For a long period of time the Romans united the Mediterranean world to an extent unmatched in history.
By the first century C.E. the Romans had extended their control over the entire Mediterranean basin, including parts
of southwest Asia, North Africa, continental Europe, and Britain. Through the combination of a centralized
authority and a normally tolerant regime, the Romans fostered close connections between the different ethnic and
religious groups of this cosmopolitan empire. Roman control also allowed for a rich cultural and religious
interchange. The rise of Christianity as a world religion is closely connected to the Roman Empire.
OVERVIEW
From Kingdom to Republic
The history of Rome stretches back to around 2000 B.C.E. and the arrival of Indo-European tribes into Italy.
While scholars have serious doubts about the epic legends of Aeneas and Romulus, they do acknowledge the
influence of the Etruscans on the early Romans. The Etruscans, who sometimes served as kings, dominated Rome
until driven out by Roman nobles in 509 B.C.E. The Romans established a republican constitution with power in the
hands of two consuls chosen by the patricians, or wealthy classes. Later, because of social tensions, the plebeians,
or common people, won the right to choose tribunes and even consuls from their own ranks.
From these rather humble origins the Romans began to expand in the fourth and especially the second
century B.C.E. While the Romans expanded militarily, they also treated the peoples of their conquered regions in an
unusually generous and tolerant fashion that inspired loyalty. As the Romans expanded into the Mediterranean they
came into conflict with the Carthaginian Empire in northern Africa. A victory in the bloody Punic Wars left the
Romans masters of the western Mediterranean. The eastern Mediterranean fell to the Romans after successful wars
with the Antigonid, Seleucid, and Ptolemaic empires.
From Republic to Empire
While the conquest of the Mediterranean world brought immense wealth into Rome, it also increased
tensions caused by the unequal distribution of that wealth. Wealthy patricians turned captured land into latifundia
and dominated smaller landowners. The attempts of the Gracchi to bring about land reform and use state subsidies
to help the poor only led to their assassinations. The wars of Marius and Sulla were vivid proof of the societal
tensions tearing the Roman state apart. Even Julius Caesar, too often recognized only for his military conquests and
political aspirations, attempted to extend Roman citizenship and create jobs for the urban poor through huge
building projects. Julius’s victory in 46 B.C.E. after a civil war created order but also essentially ended the republic.
His assassination in 44 B.C.E. threw Rome into another round of civil strife until order was restored by his nephew
Octavian.
When Octavian received the title Augustus in 27 B.C.E. the empire was born. While keeping the remnants
of the old constitutional framework, all power actually belonged to the emperor. The Pax Romana, or Roman peace,
an almost unprecedented period of economic expansion, cultural brilliance, and political stability lasting over two
and a half centuries, began with Augustus. Roman law, based on principles such as the presumed innocence of the
accused until proven guilty, brought stability to the empire as well as influenced centuries of legal thought.
Economy and Society in the Roman Mediterranean
Like other empires, the Roman Empire built roads that facilitated trade and cultural transmission. Roman
control over the Mediterranean was so complete that they simply referred to it as mare nostrum, or “our sea.” The
roads and sea lanes, along with the stability of the pax romana, inspired economic specialization and integration.
Trade promoted the rise of cities, but no city grew as large or powerful or splendid as Rome itself. Romans enjoyed
fresh water from aqueducts, a sophisticated sewage and plumbing network, and spectacular public events in the
Circus Maximus and the Colosseum. In regard to family structure, the Romans were strongly patriarchal but women
did have many rights both inside and outside the home. Slaves constituted up to one-third of the empire’s
population.
The Cosmopolitan Mediterranean
The Romans were greatly influenced by Greek culture. This influence is clearly seen in early Roman
religion, where gods like Jupiter and Mars mirror their Greek counterparts Zeus and Ares. Hellenistic philosophy
also impressed the Romans. The writings of Cicero show the influences of Stoicism. As the empire became more
cosmopolitan, other religious concepts—such as Mithraism, Judaism, and Christianity—spread and became more
influential. The rise of Christianity is almost impossible to separate from later Roman history. The successes of
Jesus of Nazareth and Paul of Tarsus are intricately tied to Roman unification.
Chapter 12
Cross-Cultural Exchanges on the Silk Roads
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Societies within a huge area, ranging from China through the Mediterranean basin, were linked by longdistance trade along the silk roads. Trade introduced wealth and new products to societies along the routes and
encouraged economic specialization. The trade routes also fostered the spread of Buddhist, Hindu, and Christian
religious thought. Finally, the spread of disease over the trade routes helped to bring closure to the classical
societies.
OVERVIEW
Long-Distance Trade and the Silk Roads Network
Long-distance trade became far less risky and far more profitable during the classical age for two main
reasons. The rulers of powerful classical states built roads and bridges that facilitated easier movement of goods and
people. The empires grew to such an extent that they often shared common borders, reducing the dangers and
uncertainties of trade. The tempo of trade increased along land routes maintained by the Seleucids and Ptolemies.
Mastery of the monsoon patterns in the Indian Ocean increased trade along the water routes.
The most prosperous and important of the trade routes were the silk roads that linked Eurasia and northern
Africa. From the eastern terminus at the Han capital of Chang’an the trade routes ran to the Mediterranean ports of
Antioch and Tyre. Sea routes connected Guangzhou in southern China with southeast Asia, Ceylon, the Arabian
Sea, the Persian Gulf, and the Red Sea. Silk, fine spices, cotton textiles, pearls, ivory, horses, jade, and
manufactured goods were actively traded from one end of the silk roads to the other. Although a few merchants
occasionally traveled the entire distance, the trade was usually carried out in stages.
Cultural and Biological Exchanges along the Silk Roads
Besides trade goods, the merchants traveling along the silk roads also brought religious concepts to a wider
world. The support of Ashoka allowed Buddhism to spread to Bactria and Ceylon. The real expansion of
Buddhism, however, occurred as the religion followed the trade routes to Iran, central Asia, China, and Southeast
Asia. Indian influence was profound in Southeast Asia, with the appearance of Sanskrit as well as Hinduism and
Buddhism. Christianity was spread in a similar fashion farther west. Christian missionaries made use of the Roman
roads and sea lanes to spread the Gospel throughout the empire to Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, North Africa,
Greece, Italy, Spain, and Gaul. The influence worked both ways. The ascetic practices of the Mesopotamian and
Iranian Christian communities influenced other Christian thinkers. Similarly, the actions of Egyptian hermits
influenced the rise of Christian monastic communities. Eventually a split developed, and most of the Christians in
southwest Asia became Nestorians. The rise of Manichaeism and its syncretic blend of Zoroastrian, Christian, and
Buddhist elements says a great deal about the increasingly cosmopolitan world brought about by trade.
Contagious diseases spread rapidly along the trade routes. The Han and Roman empires suffered
tremendous losses during the second and third centuries C.E. through the outbreak of epidemic diseases such as
smallpox, measles, and bubonic plague. The population of the Roman Empire dropped from sixty million during the
time of Augustus down to around forty million by 400 C.E. China’s population decreased from sixty million in 200
C.E. to approximately forty-five million in 600 C.E. Despite the loss of life, the outbreaks of disease brought other
changes. Trade decreased dramatically, and the economies in both areas contracted and moved toward regional selfsufficiency.
China after the Han Dynasty
After four centuries of cultural and political brilliance, the Han dynasty collapsed in 220 C.E. Internally the
Han dynasty was torn apart by factional violence. The economic and social implications of dramatically unequal
land distribution may have been the most important factor in the Han decline. The efforts of Wang Mang to rectify
this problem died with him. Uprisings such as the Yellow Turban rebellion painfully expressed the suffering of the
peasants but only caused more social unrest. Traditional centers such as Chang’an and Luoyang were devastated.
Nevertheless, important changes were shaping the Chinese social and cultural landscape. Nomadic tribes fell under
Chinese influence and became more sinicized. Traditional Confucianism, in the face of political chaos, lost some of
its vigor, and the Chinese increasingly turned to Daoism and Buddhism for hope in a desperate age.
The Fall of the Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was also going through a long period of decline. This topic, the decline and fall of the
Roman Empire, is obviously one of the most popular for historians. Despite many theories designed to explain this
collapse, the reality is that a complex combination of factors brought an end to Roman power. Internal dissension,
best represented by the twenty-six “barracks emperors,” tore Rome apart. Diocletian’s decision to split the empire
in half was based on the fact that Rome had grown so huge as to be almost unmanageable. Although Constantine
tried to reunify Rome, his choice of Constantinople as the new capital shows that the western half of the empire was
in serious decline. Germanic invasions by tribes such as the Visigoths placed pressures on the decaying Roman state
that were only increased by the appearance of Attila the Hun. Finally, in 476 C.E., the last Roman emperor, Romulus
Augustulus, was overthrown by the Germanic general Odovacar. Arguably the most important cultural change
during this period was the rise to prominence of Christianity. By 380 C.E. the emperor Theodosius made Christianity
the official religion of Rome. The hope for salvation made Christianity popular among the masses while St.
Augustine’s efforts to harmonize the new religion with Platonic thought appealed to the educated classes.
Eventually Rome, with the Pope at its head, became the center of the Christian world.
Chapter 13
The Commonwealth of Byzantium
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
A series of problems, including political and social turmoil as well as military threats from outside forces,
brought an end to the classical societies in the centuries after 200 C.E. The lone exception was the Byzantine
Empire. After the collapse of the western half of the Roman Empire the Byzantine eastern section survived for
another millennium. The Byzantine Empire developed into a dramatically different society than its Roman
predecessor. Far more than merely surviving, however, Byzantium dominated the eastern Mediterranean world
politically and economically for centuries. Even after its collapse the Byzantine Empire’s influence could be seen in
the Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe and Russia.
OVERVIEW
The Early Byzantine Empire
Byzantium began as the Greek village of Byzantion, a small trading town important only for its strategic
position on the Bosporus. Eventually Constantine chose Byzantion, renamed Constantinople, to be the capital of the
Roman empire because of its position as the center of the wealthy eastern half of the empire. At its height
Byzantium included Greece, Anatolia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt, northeast Africa, and the Balkans. Byzantium faced
threats from the Sasanid dynasty in Persia but managed to escape the Germanic invasions that had devastated the
western half of the empire.
Politically, the Byzantine state was marked by a highly centralized rule centered around a remarkably
powerful emperor. Byzantine emperors wielded a mixture of political and religious authority known as
caesaropapism. At least in theory, the emperor possessed absolute authority in all political, military, judicial, and
religious affairs. Justinian, despite humble origins, would bewas the most influential of the Byzantine emperors.
Ably advised by his wife Theodora, Justinian attempted to re-create the Roman Empire. Hagia Sophia is
representative of the brilliant building program started by Justinian to reconfigure Constantinople. Justinian’s
codification of Roman law, as seen in the Corpus iuris civilis, was the emperor’s most influential legal and political
contribution. The general Belisarius’s conquests reconstructed most of the Roman Empire. In the end, however, a
combination of limited Byzantine resources and Arabic expansion made holding the old empire together impossible.
Nevertheless, the theme system allowed for a temporary reinvigoration under Basil II in the early eleventh century.
The former western half of the empire increasingly fell to successor states. The Frankish king Charlemagne
received an imperial crown from the pope in 800 and Otto of Saxony claimed to rule the west in 962.
Byzantine Economy and Society
While its political authority fluctuated over the centuries, Byzantium remained an economic power.
Anatolia and the area around the lower Danube produced enormous supplies of wheat. Byzantium was at its
strongest when free peasants formed the engine that drove the state. The position of the free peasants was bolstered
by the theme system that provided land in return for military service. The consolidation of power and land in the
hands of the nobles not only hurt the peasants but also damaged the Byzantine empire militarily. Constantinople
remained the major center of trade and industry in the Mediterranean world. One of the major innovations was the
rise of a silk industry. Byzantium’s domination of trade is probably best shown by the fact that the bezant became
the standard currency in the Mediterranean for centuries. Constantinople—the largest city in Europe, with a
population of around one million—stood in the center of everything and was a worthy successor to Rome as “the
city” of the Mediterranean basin.
Classical Heritage and Orthodox Christianity
Despite its early connection to Rome, Byzantium was most strongly influenced by Greek culture. Greek
became the official language. Philosophy was shaped profoundly by Greek thought. Byzantine education clearly
showed the Greek influence, and a state-supported school system provided for widespread literacy. A school for the
study of law, medicine, and philosophy in Constantinople survived for a thousand years.
The differences between the western and eastern halves of the empire are probably most obvious in
ecclesiastical matters. The Byzantine emperors played a very active role in religious issues, as seen in Constantine
calling together the Council of Nicaea to attack Arian views on the nature of Jesus. The patriarchs of
Constantinople were chosen by the emperor and remained firmly under imperial control. Leo III’s iconoclasm is a
classic example of imperial meddling in religious affairs. Monasticism, shaped by the rule of St. Basil, grew rapidly
during the Byzantine age. Byzantine monasteries were known less for their scholarly contributions than for their
spiritual and social aid to their communities. Tensions over issues ranging from doctrine to power led to the
patriarch and pope mutually excommunicating each other in 1054, the date still accepted for the beginning of the
schism between the Eastern Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches.
The Influence of Byzantium in Eastern Europe
Byzantine power was threatened by internal social problems as well as challenges from the west and east.
The sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204 devastated Byzantium and only increased tensions
between the old halves of the Roman Empire. The victory of the Saljuq Turks at Manzikert in 1071 led to the loss
of Anatolia and economic devastation. After centuries of decay, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.
While Byzantium’s direct hold on the Mediterranean world was threatened by Islamic expansion, its influence on
the Slavic peoples of Eastern Europe and Russia only increased. Greek Orthodox missionaries spread the faith
northward. Two missionaries, Saints Cyril and Methodius, adopted the Greek alphabet to the Slavic tongue to create
the Cyrillic alphabet, which allowed for the further spread of religious as well as secular thought. Prince Vladimir’s
conversion turned Kiev, the first center of Russian power, into a center of Byzantine culture. By the sixteenth
century Russians spoke of Moscow as the world’s third Rome.
Chapter 14
The Expansive Realm of Islam
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
After the decline and collapse of the classical empires, new societies rose to take their place. A series of
these states were inspired by a new religion, Islam. From its origins in Arabia, Islam quickly spread to the Sasanid
Empire in Persia and even into parts of Byzantium. Muslims, or “ones who have submitted” to the will of Allah,
spread their religious convictions but also drew inspiration from the Persian, Greek, and Indian worlds. Eventually
the dar al-Islam (“house of Islam”) would cover a cosmopolitan world ranging from Spain in the west to India in the
east.
OVERVIEW
A Prophet and His World
The heartland of this new religion was the desert peninsula of Arabia, populated by the nomadic Bedouins.
Arabian merchants played an important role in long-distance trade. Muhammad (570–632 C.E.) was born into this
merchant tradition. Although an orphan, Muhammad eventually achieved a position in society through his marriage
to the wealthy widow Khadija. In a series of visions Muhammad learned from the archangel Gabriel that he was
Allah’s prophet, although he did not set out to create a new world religion. After coming into conflict with the
Meccan wealthy classes, Muhammad led his followers in 622 to the northern city of Yathrib (renamed Medina).
This journey, called the hijra, was the turning point in Muhammad’s career and is still recognized as the starting
point of the Islamic calendar. In Medina Muhammad served as the religious, political, and social leader of his
community (umma). In 630 Muhammad and his followers conquered Mecca and destroyed the idols at the Ka’ba.
Two years later he led the first pilgrimage, or hajj, to the Ka’ba. His plans to unite Arabia and spread Islam beyond
its borders were cut short by his death in 632.
Muhammad was a strict monotheist, believing that Allah was the one true God. His revelations from Allah
were recorded in the Quran. Although he displayed immense respect for the Jewish and Christian religions,
Muhammad came to see himself as the “seal of the prophets.” As the final prophet, he was the only one who
recognized the complete revelation of Allah. The Five Pillars of Islam formed the basic obligations of the faith: (1)
acknowledgment of Allah as the only God and Muhammad as his prophet, (2) prayer to Allah while facing Mecca,
(3) fast during the holy month of Ramadan, (4) alms for the weak and poor, (5) a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once
during a Muslim’s lifetime. Sometimes jihad is seen as a sixth pillar. The sharia, or Islamic holy law, provided
guidance on issues ranging from family life to commercial relationships.
The Expansion of Islam
After the death of Muhammad political authority passed to Abu Bakr as caliph. A century of tremendous
expansion followed, as Islamic armies seized Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia, Egypt, north Africa, Persia, Sind in
northwestern India, and the Iberian peninsula. Despite the military success, political problems, usually centering
around the selection of caliphs, remained a constant challenge. A fundamental split in Islam between Sunni
(“traditionalists”) and Shia (“party”) grew out of this conflict. The majority Sunni felt that leadership could be held
by any true believer. Shia began as a sect that believed that the caliphate had to be in the hands of descendants of
the assassinated fourth caliph Ali, who was a cousin and son-in-law of Muhammad.
Eventually this political chaos led to the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty (661–750), centered around
the city of Damascus. The Arab military aristocracy enjoyed a favored position under the Umayyads, which caused
tensions among the different ethnic and religious groups of the dar al-Islam. Conquered peoples were allowed to
practice their own religions but were forced to pay the jizya. Non-Arabic Muslims also felt restrained under the
Umayyad rule.
A rebellion in Persia led by Abu al-Abbas brought an end to the Umayyad dynasty and the beginning of the
Abbasid dynasty (750–1258). The Abbasid dynasty was both more tolerant and more cosmopolitan than its
predecessor. Even though the Abbasid caliphs did not actively push for expansion, Crete, Sicily, the Balearic
Islands, Cyprus, Rhodes, Sardinia, Corsica, southern Italy, and southern France were added to the empire. The
Abbasid state, made its capital the new city of Baghdad, and copied administrative techniques from the Persians.
Officials such as the ulama and gadis created a standing army and oversaw taxation, finance and postal, services.
The reign of Harun al-Rashid (786–809) would serve as the high point of Abbasid economic and artistic splendor.
Decline followed quickly, however, and for the last two centuries the Abbasids were effectively ruled by the Saljuq
Turks. The Mongols brought a definitive end to the Abbasid state with their conquest in 1258.
Economy and Society of the Early Islamic World
A zone of trade and communication stretching from Spain to India was created by the conquests of the
Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. New crops, including sugarcane, rice, spinach, oranges, lemons, bananas, cotton,
and new varieties of wheat, were introduced into different regions along this route. The result was an increase in
good supplies and a richer and more varied diet. Cotton would prove to be the most important of the new crops.
Increased trade and agricultural production fostered the rapid urban growth of cities like Delhi, Isfahan, Baghdad,
Damascus, Jerusalem, Cairo, and Cordoba. Industrial production, most notably of paper, was part of this general
expansion. Muhammad’s admiration for merchants only helped to promote the creation of this huge trading zone.
Maritime trade, bolstered by the use of the compass, astrolabe, and lateen sail, also expanded. Banking and
innovations in business organization provided the capital for trade. Even distant Spain, known as al-Andalus, shared
in the prosperity. Cordoba quickly became one of the great Islamic cities of the world.
The status of women fluctuated during this period in the Islamic world. Although undeniably members of a
patriarchal society, Arab women had enjoyed the right to inherit property or engage in business dealings. The Quran
presented women as honorable individuals and had outlawed female infanticide. At the same time, the Quran, and
especially the sharia, stressed male dominance. Men determined the nature and extent of the social and sexual lives
of women. If anything, Islam’s expansion into Mesopotamia and Persia brought even greater patriarchal influences,
most notably veiling.
Islamic Values and Cultural Exchanges
In the face of an increasingly cosmopolitan Islamic world, the Quran and the sharia promoted cultural
unity. Officials such as the ulama and qadis and institutions of higher education like the madrasas attempted to do
the same thing. The Sufis, with their emphasis on an emotional and mystical rather than intellectual connection to
Allah, served as effective missionaries. Sufi thinkers like al-Ghazali stressed that the human intellect was too weak
to truly understand Allah. A more heartfelt devotion was the key. The hajj, by bringing pilgrims from all over the
Islamic world to Mecca, also created a sense of unity.
While Muslims spread the faith to distant lands, they were also influenced by other cultures. The Persian
influence comes through most clearly in literature, poetry, history, and political theory. The Arabian Nights and
Omar Khayyam’s Rubaiyat were very popular in the Islamic world. Indian innovations in mathematics, science, and
medicine passed through the Islamic world and on into Europe. Greek philosophy, including Plato and most notably
Aristotle, provided an intellectual challenge for Islamic thinkers. In turn, Ibn Rushd’s work on Aristotle shaped the
rise of European scholasticism. Muslim scholars also further developed Greek mathematics, science, and medicine.
Chapter 15
The Resurgence of Empire in East Asia
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
The collapse of the Han dynasty brought an end to centralized rule in China for three and a half centuries.
Order was restored in the sixth century with the rise of the Sui. Eventually, the Tang and Song dynasties oversaw a
booming economy based on improved agricultural production and technological innovations. Increased trade led to
growing interaction between China and the rest of the world. Buddhism formed the most important import into
China during these centuries. In turn, the Chinese influenced the development of Korea, Vietnam, and Japan.
OVERVIEW
The Restoration of Centralized Imperial Rule in China
Regional kingdoms competed for power during the three and a half centuries after the fall of the Han
dynasty. Reunification came about in 589 through the efforts of Yang Jian and the formation of the Sui dynasty
(589–618). The Sui built a strong, centralized state while remaining militarily active and implementing huge public
works projects. Arguably the most impressive and important Sui contribution was the construction of the Grand
Canal during the reign of the emperor Sui Yangdi. The canal, stretching over 1,200 miles, connected the Huang He
and Yangzi Rivers as well as the cities of Hangzhou, Chang-an, and Beijing. While promoting political and cultural
unity, the Grand Canal remained the economic heart of China for over a millennium. Unfortunately for the Sui,
projects of this size resulted in discontent caused by the high taxes and forced labor, and in 618 the last Sui emperor
was assassinated.
A new dynasty, the Tang (618–907), rose to take the Sui’s place. The foundations of Tang success were
established by Tang Taizong, a violent but surprisingly dedicated Confucian ruler. Tang Taizong and his successors
followed three basic policies. The Tang, like most empires, established an elaborate network of roads to facilitate
transportation and communication. Second, the Tang used the equal-field system to distribute land more equitably.
Third, the Tang built on Han patterns to extend the imperial civil service examination system, resulting in a large
class of well-educated loyal officials to run the state. Militarily, the Tang extended their influence into portions of
Manchuria, Korea, Vietnam, Tibet, and far western China. Eventually the Tang emperors established a tributary
relationship with these areas. A combination of internal and external challenges led to the decline of the Tang.
Uprisings by An Lushan and Huang Chao caused political chaos while a deterioration of the equal-field system led
to peasant unrest. The last Tang emperor abdicated in 907.
Song Taizu restored order and established the Song dynasty (960–1279). In an effort to secure his position,
Song Taizu convinced his generals (with generous gifts) to enter early retirement. This decision eventually came
back to haunt the Song because it left China militarily weak. The Song more than made up for a weak army with
brilliant achievements in civil administration, industry, education, and the arts. The Song further expanded the civil
service examination system to reach well beyond the wealthy classes. In the end, economic problems at home and
invasions by the Khitan and Jurchen tribes left the Song easy prey for Mongol conquest.
The Economic Development of Tang and Song China
The Tang and especially the Song enjoyed tremendous economic prosperity. Agricultural production
increased, driven by the introduction of new crops such as fast-ripening rice and new agricultural techniques. This
increase in turn, led to the rise of a commercialized agricultural economy. The population rose rapidly, increasing
from 45 million in 600 to 115 million in 1200. Urbanization went hand in hand with the population explosion.
Chang-an, the imperial capital, became the world’s largest city, with a population in excess of two million. As
China became more urban it also became more patriarchal, probably best shown by the growing popularity of foot
binding.
Technological advancements outpaced the agricultural improvements. Innovations in the production of
porcelain led to trading opportunities as chinaware became a valued commodity. Similar advances were made in the
iron and steel industry. The invention of gunpowder led to the production of bamboo “fire lances” and primitive
bombs. These inventions, however, probably pale in comparison to the Song creation of reusable, moveable type in
the eleventh century. The range of Chinese sailing increased dramatically because of innovations such as the
“south-pointing needle,” or magnetic compass. Chinese merchants began to sail to ports in India, Persia, and east
Africa. Increased trade led to greater specialization in food production and manufacturing. Trade was aided by the
establishment of increasingly sophisticated banking instruments such as paper money.
Cultural Change in Tang and Song China
Buddhism was introduced into China by merchants traveling along the silk roads as early as the second
century B.C.E. The Buddhists were joined by Nestorian Christians, Manichaeans, Zoroastrians, and Muslims.
Buddhism eventually had the greatest appeal of the new religions, but not until the chaotic years after the collapse of
the Han dynasty called into question the legitimacy of traditional Confucian or Daoist thought. The Chinese became
interested in Buddhism because of its moral standards, intellectual sophistication, and promise of salvation. At the
same time, Buddhism provided challenges to traditional Chinese thought. In the end, syncretic versions of the new
religion, most notably Chan Buddhism, arose. An attempt by the Tang emperors to drive out the Buddhists in the
840s failed. The threat posed by Buddhism caused Chinese thinkers to reexamine traditional Confucian doctrine.
Philosophers such as Zhu Xi helped to create the Neo-Confucian school of thought.
Chinese Influence in East Asia
Through economic and intellectual exchange China influenced the neighboring societies of Korea,
Vietnam, and Japan. While China’s first connection with Korea and Vietnam during these years was a military one,
the more lasting influences were political and intellectual. The Korean Silla dynasty entered into a tributary
relationship with the Tang dynasty in the seventh century. Concepts such as Confucianism and Buddhism became
popular in Korea, although a bureaucracy based on merit was never established. The story was similar in Vietnam,
although the Chinese-Viet relationship was never as amiable as the Chinese-Korean one.
Early Japanese history was also shaped by the Chinese example. The Japanese of the Nara and Heian
periods copied Chinese Buddhist, Confucian, and literary patterns. The Chinese written script, much like Greek or
Roman in the Mediterranean basin, became the language of scholarship. Interestingly, women, because they rarely
received a classical Chinese education, had more flexibility to create because they used the developing Japanese
script. For example, the first novel in history, Murasaki Shikibu’s extraordinary The Tale of Genji, was written
during the Heian period. Despite the cultural achievements of this age, Japan remained a politically fragmented and
warlike land. In 1185 the powerful Minamoto clan defeated their long-time rivals and established the Kamakura
shogunate (1185–1333). Real political authority passed from the emperors to the shoguns. Japanese feudalism, with
its warrior class (samurai), reached its peak under the Muromachi shogunate (1336–1573).
Chapter 16
India and the Indian Ocean Basin
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
India, just as Greece, Rome, Constantinople, and China, played an influential role in shaping neighboring
societies, in this case south and Southeast Asia. The great difference between the situation in India and that of the
other states was that no Indian state developed to rival the political authority of the Tang or Roman states.
Nevertheless, India’s distinctive political, cultural, and religious traditions continued to evolve and influence its
neighbors. Indian merchants carried Hinduism, Buddhism, and Islam to Southeast Asia.
OVERVIEW
Islamic and Hindu Kingdoms
Centralized political rule in India collapsed in 451 C.E. when the Guptas were overrun by White Huns from
Central Asia, and it would not return until the sixteenth century. Internal wars and frequent invasions by Turkishspeaking nomads left northern India chaotic and politically fragmented. Brief reunification in the seventh century
by the scholarly Buddhist emperor Harsha did little in the long run to change the political pattern in the north. This
lack of political unity in the north made foreign incursion easy, and in 711 the Sind was incorporated into the
Umayyad Empire. The region eventually passed to the Abbasids and remained, although often only marginally,
under their control into the thirteenth century. Islam also came into India via Muslim merchants and Turkishspeaking migrants from central Asia. Mahmud of Ghazni launched seventeen major invasions of India in the early
eleventh century. The main goal of Mahmud was plunder, so he won few converts to Islam, and his invasions
proved disastrous for Buddhism. A more stable Islamic state eventually rose in Delhi in the thirteenth century. The
Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) restored order in northern India and was much more successful at spreading the
Islamic faith.
While remaining politically divided, the smaller Hindu kingdoms of southern India were generally spared
the constant invasions that tore apart the north. The Chola kingdom (850–1267) became rich from sea trade and
eventually became powerful enough to extend marginal control over much of southern India. At its height the Chola
kingdom controlled Ceylon as well as most of the area from the South China Sea to the Arabian Sea. The kingdom
of Vijayanagar (1336–1565) dominated southern India after the collapse of the Chola kingdom. Harihara and
Bukka, ironically two converted Muslim emissaries from the Delhi sultan, returned to their Hindu roots and carved
off their own southern kingdom. Neither state rivaled the power of the earlier Mauryan or Gupta Empires.
Production and Trade in the Indian Ocean Basin
Trade within and beyond the Indian Ocean basin increasingly forged links between India and other
societies. Once farmers mastered sophisticated irrigation techniques, such as the reservoir at Bhopal, the
agricultural foundation for expanded trade was in place. This food production helped India’s population double
between 600 and 1500 (53 million to 105 million), which in turn fueled a corresponding urban expansion. By the
fourteenth century, Delhi, with a population of over four hundred thousand, had become the second largest Islamic
city in the world. Increasingly specialized agricultural (i.e., cotton) and manufacturing production (i.e., high-carbon
steel) followed. The locations of Ceylon and southern India ensured that these areas benefitted tremendously from
the trading market. Temples served as financial, social, and agricultural centers and facilitated trade. The changing
patterns of the monsoon seasons made India’s central location a perfect place to construct emporia. The east African
kingdom of Axum benefited from Indian Ocean trade and eventually replaced Kush in significance. The caste
system itself underwent a transformation as guilds became incorporated into its complex structure. Trade also
helped to spread the caste system into southern India.
The Meeting of Hindu and Islamic Traditions
The postclassical age brought much religious change in India. The popularity of Buddhism and Jainism
decreased dramatically while Hinduism and the late-arriving Islam came to dominate society to a greater extent than
ever before. Although several powerful Indian emperors had tried to make Buddhism the main religion of India
over the centuries, it never seriously competed with the more firmly entrenched Hinduism. The sacking of the
Buddhist center of Nalanda in 1196 by Islamic forces was the beginning of the end for Buddhism in India.
The continued evolution of Hinduism, especially the growth of devotional cults dedicated to Vishnu and
Shiva, helps explain its growing popularity during these years. They believed worship of Vishnu, the Hindu
preserver god, and Shiva, a god of both fertility and destruction, would bring salvation. The ninth-century Shiva
devotee Shankara proposed that only through disciplined logical reasoning could an individual grasp the ultimate
reality of the world spirit. Ramanuja, a later Vishnu devotee, mistrusted a coldly logical attempt to understand the
reality of Brahman and instead recommended a path of intense devotion in order to reach union with the deity.
In its early centuries in India, Islam did not have the same appeal, mainly because it was the religion of the
conquerors. Leading positions in society inevitably fell to Muslims, causing even greater Hindu anger. By 1500,
however, about one-fourth of India’s population had converted to Islam. The classic Islamic notion of the equality
of all souls was appealing to the members of lower castes. As in many other areas of the growing dar al-Islam, in
India Sufi mystics, because of their emphasis on a personal and emotional connection to Allah, became the most
successful missionaries. Another explanation for Islam’s growing success was that it became less exclusionary.
The bhakti movement worked to eliminate the distinction between Hinduism and Islam. Guru Kabir, a Sufi thinker,
proposed that Shiva, Vishnu, and Allah were all manifestations of a single deity.
The Influence of Indian Society in Southeast Asia
The islands and mainland of southeast Asia were so influenced by Indian thought that they are sometimes
referred to as “Indianized states.” Religious concepts―Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic―were brought to southeast
Asia by merchants and missionaries. At the same time Indian political and cultural traditions shaped neighboring
societies. Funan, a wealthy trading kingdom along the Mekong River from the first to the sixth century, called their
king a raja, wrote in Sanskrit, and worshipped Shiva and Vishnu. The Sumatran kingdom of Srivijaya (670–1025)
dominated a sea trade route from China to India. A myriad of kingdoms followed, as complex as the Indian
civilization from which they borrowed. Angkor in Cambodia displayed Hindu influences in its capital at Angkor
Thom and Buddhist influences in its later capital at Angkor Wat. The powerful trading state of Melaka became
Islamic.
Chapter 17
The Foundations of Christian Society in Western Europe
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
During the early Middle Ages (500–1000 C.E.) Europe recovered from centuries of invasion and the
collapse of Roman hegemony. Three foundations of European society came out of the early medieval years. First,
while no European state was powerful enough to restore centralized imperial rule, the age did witness a return to
political order. A decentralized, political structure rose instead. Second, increased agricultural production led to
economic recovery and expanded trade. Third, the Christian church inspired religious leadership and cultural unity
in Western Europe.
OVERVIEW
The Quest for Political Order
After the fall of Rome several Germanic tribes established small states, but none of them came close to
extending their authority and centralizing power. Spain fell to the Visigoths while the Ostrogoths and eventually the
Lombards controlled Italy. The Burgundians and Franks divided up Gaul and the Angles and Saxons moved into
England. Of these tribes, the Franks had the greatest influence. With the rise of the Franks the center of political
power moved north of the Mediterranean basin. Clovis (481–511), the most powerful Frankish leader, extended his
empire through military conquest. More important, however, was his decision to convert to Christianity. This
decision worked to unite his peoples as well as strengthen his tie to the popes. Unfortunately, Clovis was the last
effective Frankish king for centuries.
Beginning in the eighth century the Carolingians, named after Charles “the Hammer” Martel, temporarily
restored order. Charles Martel’s grandson, Charlemagne (768–814), proved to be the most powerful Carolingian
king as well as one of the most influential European rulers of all time. While primarily known for his military
successes in conquering northeastern Spain, Bavaria, and northern Italy, there are were many aspects to
Charlemagne’s personality. Through the use of the missi dominici he worked to restore political order. Despite, and
maybe because of, his own limited education, Charlemagne tried to bring about educational reform. On Christmas
Day 800, he received an imperial crown from Pope Leo III. Historians still debate Charlemagne’s role in the
crowning. The unified empire barely outlived the reign of Charlemagne’s son Louis the Pious (814-840). Political
power fell to the counts and local authorities, and the empire fractured.
Invasions by Muslims, Magyars, and Vikings hastened the process of political fragmentation. Of these
invaders the Vikings, who raided Russia, Germany, England, Ireland, France, Spain, and Constantinople, proved the
most troublesome and influential. Around the year 1000 they even established a short-lived colony in
Newfoundland. After the collapse of Charlemagne’s empire, regional kingdoms rose to take its place. King Alfred
(871–899) unified England. In the German lands King Otto I of Saxony (936–973) defeated the Magyars and
extended his kingdom into northern Italy. The Holy Roman Empire began when Otto received an imperial crown
from the pope in 962.
Early Medieval Society
In the absence of centralized imperial rule, the decentralized political system rose to provide some order.
Historians once used the term feudalism to refer to the political and social order of medieval Europe, although many
are moving away from it because it oversimplifies a remarkably complex world. Local authorities such as counts
increased their power after the fall of the Carolingian empire. At the heart of this system was the reciprocal lordretainer relationship. As part of the agreement the lord provided the retainer with justice and protection. The lords
granted to the retainers benefices, usually sections of land called fiefs. In return the retainer owed the lord loyalty,
obedience, and military service. From a simple beginning this system developed into a complex structure, with
individuals acting as both lords and retainers in the evolving pyramid. While the system had the potential for chaos,
it also provided the opportunity for the kingdoms of England and France to develop into powerful states.
The military contingent of the feudal system comprised only a small percentage at the top. The vast
majority of the population lived as serfs on the manors of the nobles. The serfs, while not chattel slaves, existed as
semifree individuals and were legally tied to the manors of the great nobles. Their obligation to the nobles in labor
service and produce made them the agricultural foundation of the feudal system. Before the reinvigoration of
European cities the manors, mainly self-sufficient, served as the main form of agricultural organization. Innovations
such as a heavier plow, along with watermills and new methods of crop rotation, eventually allowed for increased
agricultural production. This, in turn, sparked increased trade and urbanization as well as an increase in population.
By the year 1000 the European population had returned to the Roman high in 200 C.E. of 36 million.
The Formation of Christian Europe
Its conversion to Christianity provided Europe with a unifying force as well as an invaluable connection to
the ancient world. Clovis’s conversion to Christianity intricately tied the Franks to Roman Catholicism as well as
papal policies. The northern German kings, including Charlemagne, viewed themselves as protectors of the papacy.
In return for his support Charlemagne received the imperial crown. Charlemagne used the monasteries and church
officials to further his own educational reforms. The church, in turn, benefited from Charlemagne’s efforts to spread
the faith. A series of strong popes, most notably Gregory I (590–604), oversaw a strengthening of papal power. The
notion of papal supremacy was one of the foundations of Gregory’s thought. The schism in 1054 between the popes
and the patriarchs of Constantinople was a reflection of the growing strength and independence of the Roman
Church. Christianity also spread through the growing popularity of monasticism. Church leaders such as St.
Benedict (480–547) and St. Scholastica (482–543) instituted rules that strengthened the social mission of the
monasteries. The monasteries served as orphanages, hospitals, and schools as well as agricultural and scholastic
centers.
Chapter 18
Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Nomadic tribes played a dominant role in Eurasia between the eleventh and fifteenth centuries. Persia,
Anatolia, and India were transformed after conquests by Turkish tribes. The Mongols created the largest empire of
all time, stretching from China to Russia, during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Even after the collapse of
the Mongol empire in the fifteenth century, a resurgence of Turkish power continued the influence of these nomadic
tribes. The Turkish and Mongol conquests inspired closer connections between the Eurasian lands by facilitating
cross-cultural communication and exchange, with increased trade being the best example.
OVERVIEW
Turkish Migrations and Imperial Expansion
The Turkish peoples formed a collection of loosely structured heterogeneous tribes with the emphasis on
clan or tribal loyalty. Although the tribes spoke related languages, they were nomadic and never approached true
centralized rule. The central Asian environment and resulting Turkish nomadic lifestyle made large-scale
agriculture or craft manufacturing impossible. The Turkish tribes made perfect trading partners for settled
communities, and they played a key role in the long-distance trade networks. Turkish nomadic society remained
both simple and fluid, with passage between noble and commoner status possible. Shamanism dominated early
Turkish religion. The Turks were later be influenced by Buddhist, Nestorian Christian, Manichaean, and Islamic
thought.
Military expansion became possible when the Turkish tribes began to unify into confederations. The khan,
or leader of the confederations, ruled indirectly over increasingly large groups. Their equestrian and archery skills
made the Turks substantial military threats. The Saljuq Turks were originally drawn to the Abbasid Empire by
trading opportunities. By 1055 the Abbasid caliph accepted the Saljuq Turk leader Tughril Beg as sultan, or
“chieftain.” The Saljuq Turks continued to expand and eventually reduced the Abbasid caliphs to puppet rulers. In
the north other Saljuq Turks turned their attention to the riches of the Byzantine empire, inflicting a painful defeat at
Manzikert in 1071. The defeat left Anatolia in Saljuq control, and the Byzantine empire never recovered. Further
east the Ghaznavid Turks, under the control of Mahmud of Ghazni, pushed into northern India. Mahmud’s main
goal was plunder, and he wrought tremendous destruction, especially with his plundering of Hindu and Buddhist
temples. Later Turks established more permanent rule with the creation of the Delhi Sultanate.
The Mongol Empires
Turkish expansion was interrupted by the rise of the powerful Mongol empires. From the wilds of the high
steppe lands of east central Asia the Mongols roared across Eurasia to create the largest empire of all time. Temujin,
better known as Chinggis Khan (“universal ruler”), united the Mongol tribes in 1206. He was a brilliant general as
well as a master of steppe diplomacy, a complex mixture of courage, loyalty, and deceit. By breaking down tribal
affiliations and promoting officials based on talent and loyalty, Chinggis Khan created a powerful Mongol fighting
force, even though his army never numbered more than around 125,000. Like the Turks, the Mongol forces
depended on surprising speed and legendary archery skills.
From his capital at Karakorum Chinggis Khan began to expand his empire. By 1215 he had pushed into
northern China and defeated the Jurchen, who had dominated the later Song period. The renamed Khanbaliq (“city
of the khan”), the former Jurchen capital, served as the Mongol capital in China. At the same time, Chinggis Khan
drove into Persia. In 1219 his forces slaughtered hundreds of thousands in Persia in revenge for a slight from the
Khwarzam shah. Despite the extraordinary military success, Chinggis Khan was no administrator and didn’t attempt
to create a truly centralized empire. After Chinggis Khan’s death in 1227 his empire split into four regional states:
the great khans in China, the Chaghatai khans in central Asia, the ilkhans in Persia, and the khans of the Golden
Horde in Russia.
The wealthiest region was, not surprisingly, China, under the control of Chinggis Khan’s grandson
Khubilai Khan. Besides being a fierce warrior, Khubilai Khan supported his subjects culturally and religiously. By
1279 he had conquered southern China and proclaimed the Yuan dynasty. His attempts to conquer Vietnam,
Cambodia, Burma, Japan, and Java were less successful. Russia was dominated, although not occupied, by the
Golden Horde from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries. Hülegü, Khubilai Khan’s brother, defeated the Abbasids
and devastated Persia during the thirteenth century. There were several key differences between the Mongol rule in
Persia and in China. The ilkhans made use of the brilliant Persian bureaucracy whereas the great khans in China
preferred foreign administrators. Islam became the favored religion of the ilkhans whereas the Mongols in central
Asia and China were drawn to the Lamaist school of Buddhism. Through a combination of trade, diplomatic
missions, and the resettlement of skilled conquered peoples, the Mongols facilitated greater integration in Eurasia.
Internal rebellions, disease, and crippling inflation helped bring an end to the brief reigns of the Mongols in Persia
and China. The Chaghatai khanate remained a threat until the eighteenth century.
After the Mongols
Turkish expansion continued after the Mongol collapse. Timur the Lame, better known in English as
Tamerlane, took Chinggis Khan as a model and launched a massive period of conquest in the late fourteenth
century. Within the space of a few years Tamerlane dominated the Chaghatai khanate, weakened the Golden Horde,
sacked Delhi, carried out campaigns in Asia, Anatolia, and along the Ganges, and launched an invasion of China.
Only Tamerlane’s unexpected death in 1405 stopped his expansion. As with the earlier Turks and Mongols,
Tamerlane was a conqueror and not an administrator. His empire fell apart shortly after his death, although his
legacy was felt in the later rise of the Islamic Mughal, Safavid, and Ottoman empires. The Ottomans, founded by
Osman in the late thirteenth century, proved to be the most powerful of these empires, and they influenced history
through their conquest of Constantinople in 1453.
Chapter 19
States and Societies of Sub-Saharan Africa
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Throughout most of the classical age, sub-Saharan Africa participated in the economy of the eastern
hemisphere to a limited degree. Geographic factors, most notably the Sahara desert, restricted trade and
communication between sub-Saharan Africa and its neighbors to the north. Despite these boundaries, the peoples of
sub-Saharan Africa developed “stateless” societies and intricate religious concepts. The migration of the Bantuspeaking tribes brought languages and iron metallurgy to most of the sub-Saharan region. Later the rise of transSaharan trade helped to transform African life by inspiring larger, more centralized kingdoms and introducing new
religions such as Islam and Christianity.
OVERVIEW
Effects of Early African Migrations
By the year 1000 Bantu-speaking people had spread throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa. During the
middle of the first millennium B.C.E. the Bantu mastered iron metallurgy, and they spread this skill throughout Africa
by their migrations. Between 400 B.C.E. and 1000 C.E. the population of sub-Saharan Africa expanded from around
3.5 million to over 22 million, partially because of agricultural advancements such as the domestication of the
banana. By around 1000 C.E. the Bantu had spread throughout most of sub-Saharan Africa, and their language
differentiated into around five hundred different tongues. Early Bantu political organization was marked by a
structure often referred to as “stateless societies,” which meant that there was no elaborate bureaucracy or hierarchy
of officials. This does not mean, however, that there was no governmental structure. Rather, family and kinship
units played a much more strategic role in providing a governing structure. Male family heads made up a village
ruling council, with the most prominent member acting as chief. Groups of villages would join together to form a
district, but apparently the government was more collective and less truly centralized. After the year 1000 C.E.,
increasing population pressures and military challenges led to the rise of more centralized governments and larger
kingdoms. The best example of a Bantu kingdom is Kongo, which reached its peak in the fourteenth century.
Islamic Kingdoms and Empires
The rise of trans-Saharan trade, precipitated by among other things the increasing domestication of the
camel, greatly influenced the world of sub-Saharan Africa. In addition to more tangible trade goods such as gold or
slaves, religious concepts such as Islam crossed the desert. A series of powerful and dynamic Islamic kingdoms,
beginning with Ghana, rose to dominate West Africa. Ghana, centered around the capital of Koumbi-Saleh,
controlled the gold trade across the Sahara. In the thirteenth century Ghana was superseded by Mali under the
leadership of the legendary lion king Sundiata. Mali dominated the trade routes and West Africa from the thirteenth
to the fifteenth century. The peak of Mali’s power came during the reign of Mansa Musa, whose pilgrimage to
Mecca in 1324–1325 is probably the single most dramatic moment in medieval African history. Despite being a
very conscious display of his wealth and splendor, Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage was also indicative of his tremendous
devotion to Islam and the religion spread rapidly during his reign.
East Africa was also dependent on trade, except in this instance the trade went through the Indian Ocean.
Swahili city-states such as Mogadishu, Lamu, Malindi, Mombasa, Zanzibar, Mozambique, and Sofala dominated
east Africa politically and economically. Islamic merchants exchanged goods from Persia, India, and China with the
city-states. Eventually the Swahili leaders converted to Islam. The most prosperous of the Swahili city-states was
Kilwa, which was influential from around 1300 until the city-state was sacked by the Portuguese in 1505. Central
African kingdoms such as Zimbabwe also indirectly shared in the trading prosperity. The magnificence of stone
complexes such as Great Zimbabwe speaks to the power and wealth of this kingdom.
African Society and Cultural Development
Africa has always been, and continues to be, a land of extraordinary diversity. This diversity expresses
itself politically and linguistically but also socially and culturally. The larger kingdoms developed social classes
similar to most other societies studied so far, while the smaller states and stateless societies created a more fluid
social situation. In these smaller states, conditions such as kinship, age groupings, and sex and gender expectations
played a more important role in establishing social position. Even considering the dominant role played by men
politically, women in sub-Saharan Africa possessed more opportunities than did women in other parts of the world.
Even the arrival of Islam did not substantially worsen the condition of women in sub-Saharan Africa. Private
ownership of land was not an established institution. This fact made the possession of slaves an important
barometer of personal wealth. As many as ten million African slaves were shipped north as part of the transSaharan slave trade between 750 and 1500 C.E. The Zanj slave revolt led by Ali bin Muhammad expressed the
important role that slavery played in Islamic society. African religious life also mirrored the complexity of the
continent. Certain factors, however, such as the existence of a distant creator-god, the possibility of reaching lesser
gods and spirits associated with nature, and the role of diviners in making that connection, were common motifs.
The arrival of Islam and to a lesser extent Christianity, as seen in the kingdom of Axum, brought about a
transformation of African religious life. Nevertheless, these new religions never completely eliminated the native
traditions and often, in fact, took on aspects of the original African beliefs.
Chapter 20
Western Europe during the High Middle Ages
THE CHAPTER IN PERSPECTIVE
Europe made great advances in the centuries after the year 1000 C.E. From the chaotic and largely isolated
land of the early Middle Ages, Europe became a powerful economic and cultural force during the High Middle
Ages. While re-creating Roman unification may have been the ideal, European political leaders never passed
beyond the establishment of regional states. The population rose rapidly as a result of agricultural advancements.
Vibrant economic growth went hand in hand with the establishment of long-distance trade and urbanization.
Philosophy and theology reflected the excitement of the age. Maybe the best proof of an expanding and powerful
Europe was the crusades, as the Europeans began to play a much more aggressive role in the world.
OVERVIEW
The Establishment of Regional States
Although the unification of the Roman Empire never returned to Europe during the Middle Ages, the rise
of powerful regional states brought a greater sense of stability. Otto I of Saxony conquered large sections of
Germany, Poland, and the Czech lands and received an imperial crown from Pope John XII in 962. While the Holy
Roman Empire had the potential to restore unity, however, its incessant battles with the papacy left the empire
internally divided and externally weak. The church versus state controversy, highlighted by the investiture contest,
reached its peak with the struggle between Pope Gregory VII (1073–1085) and the Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV
(1056–1106). Their confrontation at Canossa marked the high point of the medieval papacy and left the Holy
Roman emperors weakened. Frederick Barbarossa (1152–1190) also saw his power limited when the popes forced
him to withdraw from Lombardy. The Holy Roman Empire never lived up to the glories inherent in its name.
Similar processes of centralization and dissent were also at work elsewhere. The Capetian monarchy in France may
have begun with Hugh Capet in 987, but it took centuries for the French kings to centralize authority. The process
moved faster in England, mainly because the Normans transferred their existing centralized institutions across the
Channel after William’s conquest in 1066. The Italian states, both secular and ecclesiastical, remained politically
weak and divided even as they began to develop economically. Islamic control over the Iberian Peninsula faded
with the rise of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal.
Economic Growth and Social Development
Economic advancement outpaced the political development of Europe during the High Middle Ages. An
increase in agricultural production played a huge role in this process. The clearing of forests and draining of
swamps led to more arable land. New crops, improved agricultural techniques, and technological advances such as
the horseshoe and horse collar increased productivity. The result was a marked increase in population. The
European population rose from around 29 million in 800 C.E. to over 79 million in 1300. This population explosion
provided the impetus for a resurgence of towns and trade after the earlier decline. Labor specialization was a natural
result of the new urbanization. Italy, with Venice, Genoa, Pisa, and Naples, was the main center for the revival of
towns. These Italian city-states also founded colonies in the major ports of the Mediterranean that served as an
informal trading network. The Hanseatic League was a similar trading network that promoted trade in the North Sea
and Baltic Sea. Improved business techniques, such as letters of credit and partnerships, played as much of a role in
this evolution as they did in economic and trading expansions in other parts of the world.
Europe also changed socially during these pivotal centuries. The three estates, or classes, were represented
by the old saying about “those who pray, those who fight, and those who work.” By its very definition, the system
was politically, socially, and economically unequal. The rise of chivalry marked a shift in medieval society though,
as nobles were now expected to achieve high ethical standards. Women like Eleanor of Aquitaine avidly supported
troubadours who played on these courtly values, a concept drawn from the Islamic world. This social
transformation was most noticeable in the cities, which increasingly won charters of incorporation and thus
independence from noble control. Guilds, which regulated the sale and quality of goods as well as the training of
apprentices, expressed the growing influence of the urban working classes. Women also possessed more freedom in
the cities. The majority of guilds accepted female members, and some guilds were exclusively female.
European Christianity during the High Middle Ages
Not surprisingly, the Catholic Church and Christian doctrine provided the inspiration for much of the
literature, art, and music of the High Middle Ages. Growing economic prosperity provided the means for the rise of
the cathedral schools, which ensured a more structured environment for learning than had been available. These
cathedral schools promoted a formal curriculum based on the study of Latin, the liberal arts, and the writings of the
early church fathers. The early universities expanded these educational opportunities. At the same time, European
scholars came into contact with many of the works and ideas of Aristotle from Byzantine and Islamic sources.
Thinkers such as St. Thomas Aquinas attempted to reconcile Christian beliefs with the intellectual logic and rigor of
Aristotle.
The precise logic of St. Thomas Aquinas mattered much less to the average Christian than the growing
popularity of the observance of the sacraments and devotion to the saints. The Virgin Mary was the most popular
saint during the high middles ages. Relics and pilgrimages also were popular. The monastic orders founded by St.
Dominic and St. Francis rebelled against the materialism of many Christians and instead encouraged spiritualism
and service. Other groups, most notably the Waldensians and Cathars (Albigensians), criticized the church and
operated so far outside the mainstream Catholic world that they were branded heretics. The Waldensians criticized
the immorality of many members of the clergy and promoted the right of the laity to preach. The Cathars called for
an ascetic lifestyle and the rejection of the Catholic Church.
The Medieval Expansion of Europe
For good or bad, maybe the best proof of Europe’s rise was its expansion, through both exploration and
military conquest, into other lands. The Vikings sailed to Iceland, Greenland, and eventually to Newfoundland.
Back home, the Scandinavians converted to Christianity. Through a combination of military might and religious
zeal, orders such as the Templars, the Hospitallers, and the Teutonic Knights spread Christianity to the Slavic
peoples of the Baltic region. The expansion also stretched south into the Mediterranean world. In the eleventh
century two brothers, Robert and Roger Guiscard, gained control over southern Italy and Sicily, respectively. By
1492 the reconquista was complete, and the Iberian Peninsula was back under Christian control. The crusades,
whether against non-Christian Slavs, Cathar heretics, or Muslims in Palestine, were part of this expansion. Pope
Urban II’s call in 1095 for European knights to retake the holy land provided the inspiration for the crusades. The
only crusade to reach its goal was the second, which captured Jerusalem in 1099. The victory proved fleeting,
however, because the Islamic leader Saladin recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. Later crusades fell far short of their
goals, with the disastrous fourth crusade managing only to sack Constantinople. The political and religious failures
of the crusades were offset, however, by increased economic and commercial opportunities resulting from greater
contact between the Europeans and the eastern Mediterranean.