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Basics of Social Science in Culture
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Definition of Culture:
 Culture is the quality in a person or society that arises from a concern for what is viewed
as excellent in arts, letters, manners, scholarly search, etc.
 Culture is the systems of knowledge shared by a relatively a large group of people.
 Culture is the system of shared beliefs, values, customs, behaviors, and artifact that the
members of society use to cope with their world and with one another, and that are
transmitted from generation to generation through learning.
Characteristics of Culture:
1) Culture is Social: Culture does not exist in isolation/separation. It is a product of a society. It
develops through social interaction. No man can acquire culture without association with others.
Man becomes a man only among men.
2) Culture is Shared: Culture is something that an individual can posses. Culture in sociological
sense is shared. For example, customs, traditions, beliefs, ideas, values, moral etc. are all shared
by people of group or society.
3) Culture is Learnt: Culture is not inborn. It is learnt. Culture is often called “learned ways of
behavior”. Unlearned behavior is not culture. But, shaking hands, saying thanks or “Assalam
walaikum”, dressing etc. are cultural behavior.
4) Culture is Transmissive: Culture is transmissive as it is transmitted from one generation to
another. Language is the main vehicle of culture. Language in different form makes it possible
for the present generation to understand the achievement of earlier generations. Transmission of
culture may take place by imitation as well as by instruction.
5) Culture is Continuous & Cumulative: Culture exists as a continuous process. In its historical
growth it tends to become cumulative/ increasing. It becomes difficult for us to imagine what
society would be like without culture.
6) Culture Varies from Society to Society: Every society has a culture of its own. It differs from
society to society. Culture of every society is unique to itself. Cultures are not uniform. Cultural
elements like customs, traditions, morale, values, beliefs are not uniform everywhere. Culture
varies from time to time also.
7) Culture is Dynamic: No culture ever remains constant or changeless. It is subject to slow but
constant change. Culture is responsive to the changing conditions of the physical world. Hence
culture is dynamic.
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8) Culture is Acceptable: Culture provides proper opportunities for the satisfaction of our needs
and desires. Our needs both biological and social are fulfilled in the cultural ways. Culture
determines and guides various activities of man. Thus, culture is defined as the process through
which human beings satisfy their wants.
Elements of Culture:
1) Language: language is the foundation of every culture. Language is an abstract system of
word meaning and symbols for all aspects of culture. It includes speech, numerical symbols,
written character, non-verbal gesture and expression. The various languages are essentially an
important part of the culture. Language can shape how we see, taste, smell, feel and hear. It also
influences the way we think about the people, ideas and objects around us. Language
communicates a culture’s most important norms, values and sanctions to people. That’s why the
introduction of new language into a society is such sensitive issue in many parts of the world.
2) Non-verbal communication: Non-verbal communication is a process of sending and receiving
messages without using words, either spoken or written. Non-verbal communication can make or
break a speech; if the presenter is speaking with a monotone voice and has poor body language
the audience may not find the presentation as interesting.
3) Norms: Norms are the established standards of behavior maintained by a society. For
example, “wash your hand before dinner” or “Respect your elder”. This sociological term has
been defined as "the rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values, beliefs,
attitudes and behaviors”. These rules may be explicit or implicit. They have also been described
as the "customary rules of behavior that coordinate our interactions with others.
There are basically four types of Norms. Such as:
a) Formal Norms: Formal norms generally have been written down and specify strict
punishment for violators. Laws are the formal example of formal norms. If anyone violate Laws
or even try to break the laws, then he/she will get punishment.
b) Informal Norms: Informal Norms are generally understood but not precisely recorded. For
example- Standards of proper dress. Basically, in our society, there are no specific punishment
for a breaking any informal norms.
c) Morays: It is also known as Mores. Mores are strict norms that control moral and ethical
behavior. Mores are norms based on definitions of right and wrong. Unlike folkways, mores are
morally significant. People feel strongly about them and violating them typically results in
disapproval.
d) Folkways: Folkways are often referred to as "customs" or civilization or society. They are
standards of behavior that are socially approved but not morally significant. They are norms for
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everyday behavior that people follow for the sake of tradition or convenience. Breaking a
folkway does not usually have serious consequences.
4) Sanction: Sanction is punishments or rewards for conduct concerning a social norm.
Conformity to a norm can lead to positive sanctions such as a pay raise a medal, a word of
gratitude or a pat on the back. A negative sanction includes fines, threats or even imprisonment.
5) Values: Important and lasting beliefs which is shared by the members of a culture about what
is good or bad and desirable or undesirable. Values have major influence on a person's behavior
and attitude and serve as broad guidelines in all situations. Some common business values are
fairness, innovation and community involvement.
Definition of Crime:
 Crime is an action or exception which constitutes an offence and is punishable by law.
 Crime is a violation of a law in which there is injury to the public or a member of the
public and a term in jail or prison, and a fine as possible punishments.
 In a simple sense, Crime is illegal or immoral activities.
 A crime is defined as any act that is different to legal code or laws.
Types of Crime:
There are various types of crimes. Such as:
1) Victimless Crime: Sociologists use the term victimless crime to describe the willing exchange
among adults of widely desired but illegal, goods and services. For example:- Prostitution, drug
abuse, gambling etc.
2) Professional Crime: Professional crime is when someone uses special skills, experience,
methods or instruments to commit a crime while considering the activity to be their basic
occupation or as a main or additional source of income. The most common type is fraud, and all
professional crime is for personal gain.
3) Organized Crime: Organized crime is to be the work of a group that regulates relative among
criminal enterprise involved in illegal activities, including prostitutions, gambling, smuggling
and sell of illegal drugs. Organized crime dominates the world of illegal business just as large
corporations dominate the conventional business world. It allocates territory, sets price and acts.
Organized crime serves as a means of upward mobility for groups of people struggling to escape
poverty.
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4) Transnational Crime: Transnational crime occurs across multiple national borders. In the 20th
century, transnational crime grew to embrace trafficking in endangered species, drugs and stolen
art.
There are different types of transnational crime. Such as:
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Computer crime/ cyber crime
Environmental crime
Illegal drug trade
Hijacking of airplanes
Sea piracy
Terrorism
Theft of art and cultural object
5) White-collar and Technology based Crime: In white-collar crime, illegal acts committed in the
course of business activities, often by wealthy ‘respectable’ people. For example: Stock
manipulation, consumer fraud, corruption etc.
A new type of white-collar crime has emerged I recent decade and that is computer crime. The
use of high technology allows criminals to carry out electronic fraud.
Bureaucracy:
A bureaucracy is a way of administratively organizing large numbers of people who need to
work together. Organizations in the public and private sector, including universities and
governments, rely on bureaucracies to function. The term bureaucracy literally means “rule by
desks or offices,” a definition that highlights the often impersonal character of bureaucracies.
Even though bureaucracies sometimes seem inefficient or wasteful, setting up a bureaucracy
helps ensure that thousands of people work together in compatible ways by defining everyone’s
roles within a hierarchy.
In a simple sense, a bureaucracy is a component of formal organization that uses rules and
hierarchical ranking to achieve efficiency.
Characteristics of Bureaucracy:
1) Division of Labor: Division of labor means specialized exports perform their tasks. The
positive consequence is that it produces efficiency in a large scale corporation. The negative
consequences for all individual are that it produces trained incapacity and for all organization it
produces a narrow perspective.
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2) Hierarchy of Authority: The word “Hierarchy” means ‘chain of command’. Bureaucracy
follows the principle of hierarchy. It also means that each position is under the supervision of a
higher authority.
3) Written Rules & Regulation: Rules and regulations are important characteristics of
bureaucracies. Through written rules and regulation, bureaucracies generally offer employees a
clear standard of an adequate performance. Producers provide a valuable sense of continuity in a
bureaucracy.
4) Impersonality: Impersonality means, absence of human character or of the personality
associated with the human character. The positive consequence of impersonality is that it reduces
favoritism/unfairness. The negative consequence is that it contributes to feelings of isolation. In
organization, it discourages loyalty to company.
5) Employment based on Technical Qualification: It discourages favoritism and reduces little
rivalries. For example, college faculty members are ideally hired and promoted according to their
professional based qualifications, including degrees corned and research published, rather than
because of whom they know.
Family:
In a simple sense, family can be defined as, a group of people who live together and are related
to one another, usually consisting of parents and children.
Function of Family:
1) Socialization: Parents and other kin monitor a child’s behavior and transmit the norms, values
and language of their culture to the child.
2) Reproduction: For a society to maintain itself, it must replace dying members. In this sense,
the family contributes to human survival through it’s function.
3) Protection: In all cultures, the family assumes the ultimate responsibility for the protection
and upbringing of children.
4) Regulation of Sexual Behavior: Sexual norms are subject to change both over time. However,
whatever the time period or cultural values of a society, standards of sexual behavior are most
clearly defined within the family circles.
5) Affection of Companionship: Ideally, the family provides member with warm and family
relationships, helping them to feel satisfied and secure. Of course, a family member may find
such rewards outside the family- from peers, in school, at work- and may even see the home as
an unpleasant or abusive setting. Nevertheless, we expect our relatives to understand us, to care
for us and to be there for us when we need them.
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6) Provision of Social Status: We inherit a social position because of the family background and
reputation of our parents and siblings. The family presents the newborn child with an ascribed
based on race and ethnicity that helps to determine his or her place within society’s stratification
system. Moreover, family resources affect children’s ability to pursue certain opportunities, such
as higher education.
7) Religion: Family is the centre of all religious activities. All the family members offer their
prayers together and observe different religious rites, rituals and practices jointly. All the
members believe in a particular religion and observe religious ceremonies at home. Children
learn different religious values from their parents. Living in spiritual atmosphere spirituality
develops among the children. Family transmits religious beliefs and practices from one
generation to another.
8) Culture: Family also performs several cultural functions as well. It preserves different cultural traits.
Man learns and acquires culture from family and transmits it to following generations. That is why family
is considered as centre of culture.
9) Education: Family performs many educational functions for its members. As a primary
educational institution that family used to teach letters, knowledge, skill and trade secret to all its
members. It looks after the primary education of its members and moulds their career and
character. Mother act as the first and best teacher of a child. Besides he learns all sorts of
informal education such as discipline, obedience, manners etc. from family.
10) Economic: Since ancient times family has been performing several economic functions. It is
an important economic unit. In ancient time family was both a production and utilization unit. It
used to fulfill almost all the economic needs of its members such as food, clothing, housing etc.
In the then days family was self- sufficient. But now a day’s almost all the economic functions of
family is performed by other agencies and family only remain as a consumption unit. It does not
produce anything.
Socialization:
Socialization is a continuing process whereby an individual gain a personal identity and learns
the norms, values, behavior, and social skills appropriate to his or her social position. It is
important for personality development. In a simple sense, Socialization is a process of learning
one's culture and how to live within it.
Role of Socialization:
1) Family: The family is the most important agent of socialization because it is the center of the
child's life, as children are totally dependent on others. Not all socialization is intentional, it
depends on the surrounding. The most profound affect is gender socialization; however the
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family also bears the task of teaching children cultural values and attitudes about themselves and
others. Children learn continuously from the environment that adults create. Children also
become aware of class at a very early age and assign different values to each class accordingly.
2) Religion: Agents of socialization differ in effects across religious traditions. Some believe
religion is like a cultural category, making it less likely for the individuals to break from
religious relationship and be more socialized in this setting. Parental religious participation is the
most influential part of religious socialization- more so than religious peers or religious beliefs.
3) Peer Group: In a simple Sense, A peer group is social groups whose members are in similar
age and have interests, social positions. This is where children can escape supervision and learn
to form relationships on their own. The influence of the peer group typically peaks during
teenage years however peer groups generally only affect short term interests unlike the family
which has long term influence.
4) Workplace: Workplace is another agent of socialization. Just as the children spend a important
part of day at their school, the adults spend much of their day at their workplace. At the
workplace, a person meets people of different age groups and belonging to different social and
cultural backgrounds. This makes him come in close contact with different thought processes,
belief systems, etc. The interaction that then happens helps a person to broaden his/her
perspective in terms of social acceptance and tolerance towards the others. It also sometimes
helps in changing the notions of 'right' and 'wrong'
5) Mass Media: Mass media refers to the distribution of impersonal information to a wide
audience, such as what happens via television, newspapers, radio, and the Internet. With the
average person spending over four hours a day in front of the TV and children averaging even
more screen time, media greatly influences social norms. People learn about objects of material
culture (like new technology and transportation options), as well as nonmaterial culture—what is
true (beliefs), what is important (values), and what is expected (norms).
Social Structure:
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Social structure is the organized pattern of social relationships and social institutions that
together create society. Social structures are not immediately visible to the untrained observer;
however they are present and affect all dimensions of human experience in society.
Elements of Social Structure:
1) Social Institutions: An institution is an established and lasting pattern of social relationships.
The five traditional institutions are family, religion, politics, economics, and education. But,
some sociologists argue that other social institutions, such as science and technology, mass
media, medicine, sport, and the military, also play important roles in modern society. Many
social problems are generated by shortage in various institutions.
2) Groups: A social group may be defined as two or more people who have a common identity,
interact, and form a social relationship. For example, the family in which you were reared is a
social group that is part of the family institution.
There two types of groups, such as primary or secondary. Primary groups, which tend to involve
small numbers of individuals, are characterized by near and familiar communication. Families
and friends are examples of primary groups. Secondary groups, which may involve small or
large numbers of individuals, are task-oriented and characterized by impersonal/unfriendly and
formal communication. Examples of secondary groups include employers and their employees
and clerks and their customers.
3) Statuses: A status is a position of a person who lives in a social group. The statuses we live in
largely define our social identity. The statuses in a family may consist of mother, father,
stepmother, stepfather, wife, husband, child, and so on. Statuses may be either ascribed or
achieved. There are two types of Statuses; such as:
i) Ascribed Status: An ascribed status is one that society assigns to an individual on the basis
of factors over which the individual has no control. For example, we have no control over the
sex, race, ethnic background, and socioeconomic status into which we are born.
ii) Achieved Status: A social status gained through voluntary action or achievement, or the lack
thereof. Examples: the status of a college dropout, army officer, wife.
4) Social Roles: A social role is a set of expectations for people who live in a given social
position or status. Roles guide our behavior and allow us to predict the behavior of others. Roles
are significant component of social structure. It contributes to a society’s stability by enabling
members to anticipate the behavior of others and to pattern their own actions accordingly.
Role Conflict occurs when in the situation in which a person with two or more roles finds that
the roles’ expected behaviors and attitudes do not engage well.
5) Social Networks: In a simple sense, social network is a network of social connections and
personal relationships. A social network represents relationships and flows between people,
groups, organizations, computers or other information/knowledge processing units. Involvement
in social networks- commonly known as networking- is especially valuable in finding
employment.
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