Download memory - McGraw-Hill Education

MEMORY
CHAPTER SIX: MEMORY
CHAPTER OUTLINE WITH KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS (O)
Prologue: Philip Staufen: Man With No Past
Looking Ahead
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval of Memory
memory: The process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information
encoding: The process by which information is initially recorded in a form usable to
memory
storage: The maintenance of material saved in the memory system
retrieval: The process by which material in memory storage is located, brought into
awareness, and used
Memory Storehouses: The Modal Model
modal model: The very common and influential model of memory proposed by Atkinson
and Shiffrin that posits three memory stores and transfer processes for moving information
between stores
sensory memory: The initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant
short-term memory: Memory that holds information for 15 to 25 seconds
long-term memory: Memory that stores information on a relatively permanent basis
Sensory Memory
iconic memory: Memory of information from our visual system
echoic memory: Memory of auditory information coming from the ears
Short-Term Memory: Giving Memory Meaning
chunk: A meaningful grouping of stimuli that can be stored as a unit in short-term
memory
Rehearsal
rehearsal: The repetition or elaboration of information that has entered short-term
memory
repetition rehearsal: Repetition that keeps information active in short-term memory
elaborative rehearsal: Working with or processing the meaning of information in order to
effectively transfer it to long-term memory
mnemonics: Formal techniques for organizing material to increase the likelihood of its
being remembered
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.1: Capacity of Our Memories
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.2: Demonstrating the Limit of Short-Term Capacity
Long-Term Memory: The Final Storehouse
Contemporary Approaches to Memory: Working Memory, Levels of Processing, Memory Modules,
and Associative Models of Memory
serial process: In memory, processing information sequentially from sensory to short-term
to long-term memory stores
parallel process: In memory, processing information simultaneously in different memory
components
Working Memory
working memory: An active “workspace” in which information is retrieved and
manipulated, and in which information is held through rehearsal
central executive: The component of working memory which coordinates the material to
focus on during reasoning and decision making
visual store: The subcomponent of the central executive which concentrates on visual and
spatial information
verbal store: The subcomponent of the central executive which is responsible for holding
and manipulating material relating to speech, words, and numbers
115
CHAPTER SIX
Levels of Processing
levels-of-processing theory: The theory that emphasizes the degree to which new
material is mentally analyzed
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.3: Exploring Levels-of-Processing Theory
Long-Term Memory Modules
declarative memory: Memory for factual information: names, faces, dates, and the like;
information about things
nondeclarative memory: Memory for skills, habits and products of conditioning;
information about how to do things
procedural memory: Memory for skills and habits such as riding a bike or hitting a
baseball.
semantic memory: Memory that stores general knowledge and facts about the world, as
well as memory for the rules of logic that are used to deduce other facts
episodic memory: Memory for the biographical details of our individual lives
Associative Models of Memory
associative models of memory: Models suggesting that memory consists of mental
representations of clusters of interconnected information
spreading activation: A process of memory in which activating one memory triggers the
activation of related memories
priming: A phenomenon in which exposure to a word or concept (called a prime) later
makes it easier to recall related information, even when there is no conscious memory of
the word or concept
explicit memory: Intentional or conscious recollection of information
implicit memory: Memories of which people are not consciously aware, but which can
affect subsequent performance and behaviour
The Multiple Modules of Memory
The Biological Bases of Memory
long-term potentiation: Long-lasting increases in the strength of responsiveness at
various synapses
consolidation: The process by which memories become fixed and stable in long-term
memory
memory traces: The physical records of memory in the brain
Recalling Long-Term Memories
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: The inability to recall information that one realizes one
knows—a result of the difficulty of retrieving information from long-term memory
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.4: Demonstrating the Serial Position Effect
Retrieval Cues
retrieval cue: A stimulus such as a word, emotion, or sound that allows one more easily to
recall information that is located in long-term memory
recall: Drawing from memory a specific piece of information for a specific purpose
recognition: Acknowledging prior exposure to a given stimulus, rather than recalling the
information from memory
Encoding Processes
Flashbulb Memories
flashbulb memories: Memories of a specific important or surprising event that are so
clear they seem like snapshots of the event
Constructive Processes in Memory: Rebuilding the Past
constructive processes: Processes in which memories are influenced by the interpretation
and meaning we give to events
schemas: Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new
information is interpreted, stored, and recalled
Memory in the Courtroom: The Eyewitness on Trial
116
MEMORY
LECTURE LEAD 6.1: Memory on Trial: The Fallibility of Witnesses
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.5: Writing about Eyewitness Testimony
Applying Psychology in the 21st Century Repressed Memories: Truth or Fiction?
repressed memories: Recollections of events that are initially so shocking that the mind
responds by pushing them into the unconscious
false memory: Apparent memory that is either inaccurate or wholly false
LECTURE LEAD 6.2: Repressed Memories: Truth or Fiction?
Autobiographical Memory: Where Past Meets Present
autobiographical memories: Our recollections of circumstances and episodes from our
own lives
Exploring Diversity Are There Cross-Cultural Differences in Memory?
Forgetting: When Memory Fails
decay: The loss of information in memory through its nonuse
memory trace or engram: An physical change in the brain that occurs when new
material is learned
interference: The phenomenon by which information in memory displaces or blocks out
other information, preventing its recall
LECTURE LEAD 6.3: Research Classics: The Work of Hermann Ebbinghaus
Proactive and Retroactive Interference: The Before and After of Forgetting
proactive interference: The phenomenon by which information learned earlier interferes
with recall of newer material
retroactive interface: Difficulty in recall of information because of later exposure to
different material; new information interferes with the recall of older material
Memory Dysfunctions: Afflictions of Forgetting
Alzheimer’s disease: An illness associated with aging that includes severe memory loss,
physical deterioration, and loss of language abilities
amnesia: Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties
retrograde amnesia: Memory loss of occurrences prior to a certain event
anterograde amnesia: Memory loss of events following an injury
Korsakoff’s syndrome: A disease that afflicts long-term alcoholics who have also had an
impaired diet, resulting in a thiamine deficiency and involving memory impairment
LECTURE LEAD 6.4: Oliver Sacks and the Lost Mariner
INDEPENDENT PROJECT 6.1: Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia
Pathways Through Psychology Holly Tuokko
Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology Improving Your Memory
keyword technique: The pairing of a foreign word with a common, similar-sounding
English word to aid in remembering the new word
encoding specificity: The phenomenon by which information is remembered best in an
environment that is the same as or similar to where it was initially learned
overlearning: Studying and rehearsing material past the point of initial mastery to
improve long-term recall
LECTURE LEAD 6.5: Improving Your Memory: Will Hypnosis Work?
LECTURE LEAD 6.6: Encoding Specificity: The Role of Cues in Remembering
CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.6: Demonstrating the Use of Mnemonics
INDEPENDENT PROJECT 6.2: SQ3R as a Memory Aid
Looking Back
Key Terms and Concepts
Psychology on the Web
OLC Preview
Epilogue
117
CHAPTER SIX
LEARNING OBJECTIVES (P)
Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval of Memory
1. Define memory and the basic processes of encoding, storing, and retrieving information. (p. 188)
2. Describe sensory memory, discuss the characteristics of short-term memory, and summarize the evidence for
the existence of long-term memory as distinct from short-term memory. (pp. 189–193)
3. Describe the four contemporary approaches to memory. Distinguish between declarative and nondeclarative
memories. Describe semantic, episodic and procedural memories, as well as priming, and implicit and explicit
memories. (pp. 193–198)
4. Describe the biological bases of memory. (pp. 198–199)
Recalling Long-Term Memories
5. Distinguish between recall and recognition and discuss encoding processes (levels of processing theory) in
relation to memory. (pp. 200–201)
6. Describe the concept of flashbulb memories. (p. 202)
7. Define constructive processes. Consider issues regarding the accuracy of constructed memories, including
eyewitness testimony and autobiographical memory. (pp. 203–206)
Forgetting: When Memory Fails
8. Discuss how memories are forgotten, especially the roles of proactive and retroactive interference. (pp. 207–
209)
9. Distinguish between the common memory disorders. (pp. 209–211)
10. Describe techniques for improving memory skills. (pp. 211–212)
LECTURE LEADS
Lecture Lead 6.1: Memory on Trial: The Fallibility of Witnesses (W)
Overhead Masters or Handout Masters are provided with this activity.
Whereas most research concerning eyewitness testimony that is publicized involves the issue of its accuracy or
fallibility, some research has been undertaken to find ways that will strengthen the reports given by eyewitnesses.
Fisher and Geiselman (Baddeley, 1997) have developed what they call a “cognitive interview” that is meant to
improve later recall. (The interview method involves the initial interview by a police officer and later interviews.)
Four retrieval mnemonics are used in the cognitive interview: (Use Overhead Master 6.1.)
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mentally reinstating the environmental and personal contact that occurred at the time the crime was
witnessed
Encouraging the reporting of every detail, regardless of how peripheral it is to the incident reported
Attempting to recount the incident in several different orders (e.g., both forward and backward)
Attempting to report the incident from a range of different perspectives, including that of other prominent
characters within the incident as well as that of the witness (Baddeley, 1997, p. 289)
Apparently, this technique is better than the standard interview method and recall that is aided by hypnosis. For class
presentation, this technique can be compared to elaborative rehearsal and to the levels-of-processing model of
memory.
Baddeley, A. (1997). Human memory: Theory and practice. East Sussex Psychology Press.
Lecture Lead 6.2: Repressed Memories: Truth or Fiction? (R)
Overhead Masters or Handout Masters are provided with this activity.
118
MEMORY
This is one area in which you will not be disappointed if you wish to have a good class debate. Students as well as
faculty debate must rely primarily on opinions, as hard evidence is lacking at this point. There are, however, bits and
pieces of the puzzle beginning to emerge. (Use Overhead Master 6.2.)
There are certainly two sides to this issue, and each is getting much publicity. As noted in the text, George
Franklin was convicted of murder based on testimony centered around repressed memories. On the other side of the
issue, Gary Ramona was awarded a $500,000 settlement as a result of an allegation that his daughter falsely accused
him of sexual abuse after recovering memories during a therapy session. The issue here was whether the therapist
inadvertently planted false memories in the client. The question now is whether repressed memories are always false
memories, and, if so, where do they come from?
In a recent article, Goleman (1994) summarized research pertaining to false memories in the area of mental
mechanisms. He noted that at present, the best explanation of false memories is “source amnesia.” This type of
amnesia refers to the inability to remember where a memory for a given event came from. Once we forget the origin
or source of the memory, many forms of distortion are easily produced, often with the feeling of genuine
authenticity of the distorted event. The problem is that the source of memories may be the first to fade, even though
other aspects of the memory persist. For example, have you ever made the statement, “I remember the details, I just
don’t remember where I got the information”? When the mind recalls the specifics of a memory but not the source,
all sorts of distortion can take place. Children seem especially susceptible to this type of memory distortion. Golman
writes that at a Harvard Medical School meeting, Dr. Ceci reported that in a series of experiments, yet to be
published, nearly 58 percent of children studied made up false accounts of fictitious events presented to the children.
There are few research studies supporting the case for repressed memories. One exception to this is
research conducted by Williams (1994). Through hospital records, she was able to identify children brought in for
treatment of sexual abuse and traced them as adults in an effort to see what they could remember. Many of the adults
did report substantial memory loss of instances of sexual abuse as children.
Other issues are raised periodically as they relate to the issue of repressed memories. Are highly emotional
and disturbing events more likely to be repressed or remembered vividly? Survivors of the Holocaust and battles of
war are more likely to report flashbacks and a desire to forget such images. Some have questioned whether we are
pitting clinical experience against scientific research, or, in essence, pitting clinical psychology against experimental
psychology. Many of the cases for repressed memories are from clinical case studies, which is an important source
of information but should not be confused with evidence gathered through scientific methodology. Other arguments
include whether repressed memory might be an instance of dissociation (e.g., multiple personality). Even if
recovered memories are the consequence of dissociation, does that make them more believable? Finally, if repressed
memories are true, to what extent is helping the client to “remember” the past really helpful? There are certainly
those who will argue both sides of this issue as well. Some believe that it is important to relive the past and work
through any problems from that time, whereas others state that we should put difficulties behind us and concentrate
on the present and future.
Goleman, D. (1994, May 31). Miscoding seen as root of false memories. The New York Times, C1.
Williams, L. M. (1994). Recall of childhood trauma: A prospective study of women’s memories of child sexual
abuse. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 62, 1167–1176.
Lecture Lead 6.3: Research Classics: The Work of Hermann Ebbinghaus (W)
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909) sought to investigate memory but ran into the problem of controlling for
previous experience with to-be-remembered words. He attempted to solve the problem by creating a set of
pronounceable nonwords. To accomplish this, he simply used a vowel separated by two consonants (e.g., por, nuw,
seg) and created 2,300 nonsense syllables. Schultz and Schultz (1992) point out that Ebbinghaus did not intend for
each syllable to be meaningless, but that the list of syllables would essentially be meaningless. Using himself as his
only subject, he investigated many aspects of memory, and did so in a very diligent manner. For example, in an
investigation of the effects of repetition on retention he rehearsed 420 lists each 34 times. This makes a total of
14,280 repetitions of lists containing 16 syllables each (Hunt, 1993).
What aspects of memory did Ebbinghaus investigate? He found that learning meaningless lists of words
takes longer than learning a meaningful block of material of the same length. He noted that the longer the list, the
more time it takes to learn each individual syllable. That is, it takes more than three times longer to learn a list of 30
words than a list of 10 words. He noted the effect of overlearning. If you practice a list past the point in which it is
learned, it will be easier to relearn at a later time. He also investigated time between learning and recall and noted
119
CHAPTER SIX
that material is forgotten very quickly at first and then at a much slower rate. This supports the common knowledge
that to study the night before an exam will help serve a person well for a unit exam, but will cause problems for the
comprehensive final. His work also demonstrated that not all items on a list are equally likely to be recalled. He
called this finding the serial position effect. Items early on the list and late on the list have the highest probability of
being recalled. Finally, Ebbinghaus noted that, in general, the best way to learn is to be active in the learning
process, space the material, and to learn the material as a whole to the greatest extent possible (Hothersall, 1995;
Schultz & Schultz, 1992).
Overall, Ebbinghaus was a very important person in the history of psychology. Although he investigated
memory more than 100 years ago, his work is often cited in present publications. In fact, Titchner (1928) stated that
the creative method of studying memory by use of nonsense syllable lists was, at that time, the biggest advance in
psychological study “since the time of Aristotle.”
Hothersall, D. (1995). History of psychology. 3rd Ed. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hunt, M. (1993). The story of psychology. New York: Doubleday.
Schultz, D. P., & Schultz, S. E. (1992). A history of modern psychology. 5th Ed. New York: Harcourt Brace
Jovanovich College Publishers.
Titchner, E. B. (1928). A text book of psychology. New York: Macmillan.
Lecture Lead 6.4: Oliver Sacks and the Lost Mariner (W)
One of the most fascinating careers with regard to the study of memory and the functioning of the brain has to be
that of Oliver Sacks, the world-famous neurophysiologist portrayed by Robin Williams in the movie Awakenings. In
his book The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat, Sacks tells of a former sailor who was admitted to a Home for
the Aged in New York City in 1975. “Jimmie,” as Sacks called him in the book, was only 49 years old, healthy,
friendly, cheerful, and warm. Why was Jimmie in a home for the elderly? Jimmie had, in his youth, a serious
drinking problem that resulted in Korsakoff’s syndrome, which the text describes as a disease of memory caused by
both alcoholism and dietary deficiencies. In Jimmie’s case, his memory was affected severely by two types of
amnesia: retrograde (an inability to remember past memories) and anterograde (an inability to store new long-term
memories). As Sacks interviewed Jimmie, it became clear that Jimmie’s memory for his childhood and his early
days as a navy man were still intact. However, his memory of the past seemed to end at around 1945, 30 years ago.
The last 30 years of his life were a blank, and he believed himself to be only about 19. This severe retrograde
amnesia is common to Korsakoff’s syndrome.
At one point, Sacks tried an experiment. He asked Jimmie how old he was, and got the answer “19.” He
then held a mirror up to Jimmie’s face. Jimmie became very agitated and frightened, wanting to know who that old
man in the mirror was—it couldn’t be him, could it? Sacks immediately removed the mirror, took Jimmie over to the
window, and distracted him with the ball game being played outside by some children. Jimmie’s face smoothed out
and became calm, and he never remembered the incident. Jimmie’s failure to remember his real age was the result of
the retrograde amnesia, but his failure to remember what had just happened a few moments ago was the result of
anterograde amnesia. The latter type of amnesia was so severe that Jimmie did not know who Sacks was when he
came to see him two minutes after he had just left the room—in just two minutes, Jimmie’s memories of the entire,
long interview with Sacks was totally gone. In fact, he was astonished at how much Sacks seemed to know about his
life, since he believed that he and Sacks had never met before.
Sacks, O. (1998). The man who mistook his wife for a hat and other clinical tales. Carmichael, California:
Touchstone Books.
Lecture Lead 6.5: Improving Your Memory: Will Hypnosis Work? (R)
Memory is a fragile, elusive thing that is less like a videotape recorder that can capture an event for
repeated playback than an interpretive process of putting together information when it is called for.
(Elizabeth Loftus, quoted in Leary, 1988, p. C1)
Much of what we remember is constructed at the time of recall based on bits of previous experience we have
encoded as well as our schemas about the world. While reconstructive memory allows us to more efficiently deal
120
MEMORY
with a wealth of information, it is also prone to distortion, causing us to recall things that never actually happened.
Loftus, Miller, and Burns (1978) found that people given misleading information about an event fit it into their later
recall of what they had witnessed in the event.
A number of studies (e.g., Nogrady, McConkey, & Perry, 1985; Sheehan, Grigg, & McCann, 1984;
Sheehan & Tilden, 1983, 1984) have been conducted to determine whether hypnosis enhances or reduces this
tendency to distort recall of past events, especially the tendency to incorporate misleading information about an
event into the recollection of the event itself. In general, the findings have shown that hypnosis usually does not help
recall and, in certain instances, leads to a higher rate of recall errors. Further, even when hypnosis has been found to
enhance memory (e.g., DePiano & Salzberg, 1981) this enhancement is not without costs—including more errors in
memory, greater tendency to accept misleading information, and a higher confidence in recall of inaccurate material
(Nogrady, McConkey, & Perry, 1985).
Sheehan and Tilden (1983) found evidence for the distorting effects of hypnosis on memory. They gave
hypnotized and awake subjects misleading information about an event they had seen. It was found that hypnosis did
not enhance accurate recall of the event. Hypnotized subjects were more confident of their recollections even when
they were in error—and, on a free recall task, the hypnotized subjects were more likely to include incorrect details
not present in the event they witnessed. Sheehan and Tilden (1984) had individuals view a sequence of slides of a
man apparently putting a woman’s wallet into his pocket after bumping into her, knocking her down, and helping
her pick up the groceries. Subsequently, some subjects were given misleading information about a few details of the
incident and hypnotized. Later they were asked to recall the incident they had seen on the slides. It was found that
hypnotized subjects were not more accurate than control subjects in recalling the central aspects of the incident.
While they recalled more peripheral details of the incident than controls, they also made more errors of recall for
peripheral events. The authors concluded that “memory distortion characterizes the unstructured recall of
hypnotizable subjects” (p. 56). Likewise, the conclusion of another study:
The findings do not support the notion that hypnosis enhances memory. Rather, the present study
indicates that confident errors are likely to be made if hypnosis is employed. (Nogrady, McConkey, &
Perry, 1985, p. 203)
While these experiments were all carried out under laboratory conditions, they do seem to relate to the
issue of whether the testimony of hypnotized witnesses should be allowed in court. Currently, more than 20 states
either have banned or have limited testimony obtained through hypnotizing witnesses (Leary, 1988). This limitation
seems wise given that witnesses are often exposed to misleading information about events by the questions of
lawyers or the testimony of other witnesses. The findings of the studies we have reviewed suggest that the testimony
of hypnotized witnesses is highly prone to error and distortion. If the laboratory studies reported here are
generalizable to court situations, then it could be said that exposure to misleading information given to hypnotized
subjects, either before or after they are hypnotized, will result in more recall distortion than for nonhypnotized
subjects. Not only is the recall of hypnotized witnesses not superior to those who aren’t hypnotized, it may in certain
circumstances be worse. As Dr. Martin Orne, an expert in hypnosis research, has recently noted: “Ninety-five
percent of the population believes that hypnosis increases memory, but the data don’t support that. Only the
likelihood of distortion increases. People tell you more things that they remember under hypnosis, but the accuracy
of those memories is not as good” (quoted in Leary, 1988, C15).
DePiano, F. A., & Salzberg, H. C. (1981). Hypnosis as an aid to recall of meaningful information presented under
three types of arousal. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis, 29, 383–400.
Leary, W. (1988, November 15). Novel methods unlock witnesses’ memories. The New York Times, C1, C15.
Loftus, E. F., Miller, D. G., & Burns, H. J. (1978). Semantic integration of verbal information into a visual memory.
Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory, 4, 19–31.
Nogrady, H., McConkey, K. M., & Perry, C. (1985). Enhancing visual memory: Trying hypnosis, trying imagination
and trying again. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 94, 195–204.
Sheehan, P. W., Grigg, L., & McCann, T. (1984). Memory distortion following exposure to false information in
hypnosis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 93, 259–265.
Sheehan, P. W., & Tilden, J. (1983). Effects of suggestibility and hypnosis on accurate and distorted retrieval from
memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory and Cognition, 9, 283–293.
121
CHAPTER SIX
Sheehan, P. W., & Tilden, J. (1984). Real and simulated occurrences of memory distortion in hypnosis. Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 93, 47–57
Lecture Lead 6.6: Encoding Specificity: The Role of Cues in Remembering (W)
Encoding specificity is a principle whereby memory will be enhanced if cues present at encoding are also available
at retrieval (Tulving, 1974). This principle is typically applied in two areas: context-dependent memory and statedependent memory.
Memory can be facilitated if the context at time of encoding is the same as the context at time of retrieval.
Along this line, when a context is presented, associations with information learned while in that context may be
facilitated. The important point here is that context serves as an unintentional retrieval cue. For example, when you
drive down the main street in a town you lived in as a youth, you will probably have a flood of memories. Research
has also demonstrated this effect. Schab (1990) found that when people studied a list of words in a room with a
strong odor present, they recalled more words when the same strong odor was present at time or retrieval. If the odor
was absent, or if another odor was present, recall was significantly lower. Some experimenters have also
demonstrated small but significant effects when a subject studies a list and is subsequently tested in the same room
(as opposed to a different room). You may use this information to inform your students that for make-up exams
there is the implication of being tested in a different room than where the lectures took place.
Another related aspect of encoding specificity is state-dependent memory. In this case, the consistency of a
subject’s emotional or physical state at time of learning and retrieval enhances recall. In one study, Eich (1980)
found that subjects who learned a list of words while under the influence of marijuana recalled significantly more
words when tested under the influence of marijuana than when tested undrugged. Quickly point out to the students
that the subjects also recalled more words when they learned in an undrugged state and were tested in an undrugged
(as opposed to drugged) state. Research pertaining to mood states has been inconsistent. Bower (1981), Bower and
Mayer (1989), and Eich, Macauley, and Ryan (1994) conclude in their research that if you have an experience when
you are intensely happy or sad, drunk or sober, calm or aroused, you are more likely to be able to recall that
experience when your internal state is the same as it was when you had the experience. If mood is found to have an
effect on recall, this would explain why people in a depressed mood tend to be mostly reminded of bad events in
their lives, thereby resulting in more depression.
Bower, G. H., & Mayer, J. D. (1989). In search of mood dependent retrieval. Journal of Social Behaviour and
Personality, 1, 121–156.
Bower, G. H. (1981). Mood and memory. American Psychologist, 36, 129–148.
Eich, J. E., Macauley, D., & Ryan, L. (1994). Mood dependent memory for events of the personal past. Journal of
Experimental Psychology: General, 123, 201–215.
Schab, F. R. (1990). Odors and remembrance of things past. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning,
Memory and Cognition, 16, 648–655.
Tulving, E. (1974). Recall and recognition of semantically encoded words. Journal of Experimental Psychology,
102, 778–787.
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
Classroom Activity 6.1: Capacity of our Memories (E)
You may wish to start the discussion with a quick demonstration to show just how much material we have in our
memories, and that, given the right motivation, students can learn an amazing amount of material. Bring in a radio
and start going through the dials. Caution: Try this before class. Some buildings in some regions are situated such
that it is very difficult to get any stations. When you get to a station that comes in clearly and a song is playing, ask
the students the name of the song. If they get that (they usually do), play the song for a few seconds and turn the
radio off. Ask them to jot down the next few words in the song. Go to another station and repeat this process for as
long as you like. Do about four songs. The students really enjoy this. Indicate that they have a large number of songs
with a very large number of lyrics stored in their memories. You can also ask them to think of all the associations
they have pertaining to these songs (that is, ask them whether these songs remind them of anything else). Not only
122
MEMORY
do our brains contain a lot of information, we are surprisingly efficient at getting to that information. Ask the
following questions and have the students respond as quickly as they can. After they respond to each, ask how long
a computer would require to execute the same information retrieval. For the first two, the computer would be fast,
but what would happen with questions 3 and 4?
1.
2.
3.
4.
What is the name of this college/university?
Name two (or more, depending on where you are) states that border the one we are in.
In the game of football, how many strikes can players get before they are credited with a basket?
What type of car did Abraham Lincoln drive? (The answer is not Ford.)
Classroom Activity 6.2: Demonstrating the Limit of Short-Term Capacity (E)
Overhead Masters or Handout Masters are provided with this activity.
Investigations into the number of discrete items to which a person can attend at any one time, sometimes called
one’s “span of apprehension,” have generally agreed on the same upper limit. In his classic paper on the subject,
Miller (1956) referred to this limit as the “magical number seven, plus or minus two.” We can generally attend to
between five and nine separate “bits” of information at one time. Miller went on to show that the actual number of
items that can be attended to can be increased by chunking items together to form larger bits. There are a number of
ways to measure span of apprehension, or what is now more often referred to as the capacity of short-term memory.
(Use Overhead Master 6.3.)
A simple demonstration is to read off a random set of digits and ask the students to write out the digits in
the correct order. Read off the digits at the rate of one per second and then tap on the table following the last digit.
This informs them that the list is over without providing any verbal interference. It is also interesting to have them
write the digits in the reverse order. Discuss why differences exist between these two methods. The backward digit
span will be much shorter, because the individual must hold the information in short-term memory and manipulate
the digits. It is also helpful to explain that the forward and backward digit span is presently used on standard
intelligence tests.
Miller, G. A. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two. Some limits on our capacity for information
processing. Psychological Review, 65, 81–97.
Classroom Activity 6.3: Exploring Levels-of-Processing Theory (E)
Overhead Masters or Handout Masters are provided with this activity.
According to the levels-of-processing theory, the more elaborated or the deeper the initial level of processing, the
better the subsequent recall. A common method of testing this relationship is to use the incidental learning paradigm
suggested by Hyde and Jenkins (1973). Students are asked to perform one of two orienting tasks that demand either
shallow (nonsemantic) or deep (semantic) processing and are then asked to engage in free recall.
Researchers are also dividing the semantic processing level in ways that affect memory. Klein and
Kilhstrom (1986) have shown a self-reference effect, demonstrating an increase in recall of words when subjects
related the key words to themselves.
In this demonstration, one third of the subjects are told to either count or estimate the number of vowels in
words read to them (Handout Master 6.4a). Another one third are told to rate each word on a 5-point scale of
importance if they were stranded on a South Seas island (Handout Master 6.4b). The final one third are asked to
imagine themselves somehow interacting with the word presented (Handout Master 6.4c). The words are then read
at 3-second intervals. Next, pass out Handout Master 6.4d, and ask the subjects to recall as many of the words as
they can. Allow 2 minutes for recall. The words in the following list vary on both scales (number of vowels and
importance):
1.
2.
3.
umbrella
gasoline
orchestra
7. university
8. macaroni
9. eyeglasses
13. alcohol
14. bouquet
15. microscope
123
19. insect
20. elephant
21. sulphur
CHAPTER SIX
4.
5.
6.
yacht
hammer
diamond
10. garden
11. underwear
12. newspaper
16. camouflage
17. pollution
18. restaurant
22. lemonade
23. mosquito
24. bottle
Students who used a self-reference and those who rated the importance of the words should show a much
greater recall than those who counted vowels, demonstrating the memorial advantage of analyzing the meanings of
the words rather than their physical properties. It might also be noted that students are most likely to recall words
with which it was easiest to form interaction images, that were rated the least or most important, and that had the
fewest or most vowels.
Hyde, T. S., & Jenkins, J. J. (1973). Recall of words as a function of semantic, graphic, and syntactic orienting tasks.
Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 12, 471–480.
Klein, S. B., & Kihlstrom, J. F. (1986). Elaboration, organization, and the self-reference effect in memory. Journal
of Experimental Psychology: General, 115, 26–38.
Classroom Activity 6.4: Demonstrating the Serial Position Effect
Overhead Masters or Handout Masters are provided with this activity.
Proactive and retroactive interference are described in the text. Murdock (1962) demonstrated support for the
concept of proactive and retroactive interference in his explanation of the serial position effect. The serial position
effect was first demonstrated by Ebbinghaus. He noted that when a person attempts to learn a list of items, items at
the beginning and items at the end of the list have the greatest probability of being recalled. The finding that we are
more likely to recall information from the beginning of a list is referred to as the primacy effect. That items at the
end of the list are also highly likely to be recalled is referred to as the recency effect.
This can be generalized in a number of ways. When a student attempts to impress an instructor at the
beginning of the course, the student may be hoping for a primacy effect when final grades are calculated. Those
students who choose to try hard at the end of the course to impress the instructor may be shooting for a recency
effect. Murdock (1962) proposed that items at the beginning of the list are more likely to be recalled because those
items can only suffer from the interference of later items (retroactive interference) and items at the end of the list can
only suffer from earlier items (proactive interference). The items in the middle of the list are affected by both
proactive and retroactive interference and should therefore be more difficult to recall.
The serial positions effect is very easy to create in a class demonstration just as Ebbinghaus demonstrated it
more than 100 years ago. Use Overhead Master 6.5a to make either cards or transparency cards of the 20 CVCs
(nonsense syllables). Make copies of Handout Master 6.5b for student sot record their responses. Present the CVCs
to the students at a rate of one per second. The students are then to write down, in order, as many of the CVCs as
they can in column A. Do not give them the correct answers yet. Tell them to fold the list under so that they cannot
see the list they just attempted to complete and then show them the CVCs again as you did the first time (and in the
same order). Repeat this procedure four times.
After this has been completed, have the students unfold their response sheets so that they can see all four
columns. Have them describe any patterns that emerged. They will find that they got the beginning and end items of
the list very quickly, and then filled in more of the middle of the list as the number of trials increased: the serial
position effect. Also note that for some of the students, the CVCs used had much meaning (such as COF for
“coffee”). Discuss why these may have been much easier to remember than others.
Murdock, B.B. (1962). The serial position effect of free recall. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 64,
482-488.
Classroom Activity 6.5: Writing about Eyewitness Testimony (Student Study
Guide Essay Question 6.1) (R)
What role should psychologists play in helping the courts deal with witness fallibility? Consider both
the advantages and disadvantages of the answer you give.
124
MEMORY
Most students will argue that psychologists should provide some guidance to the courts. An equally strong position
has been and can be taken opposing expert testimony regarding eyewitness testimony. The following debate can be
used to clarify these two positions.
In the past several years, there has been a great deal of interest in the relation between psychology and the
law. Psychologists have studied the reliability of eyewitness testimony (Wells & Loftus, 1984 ), the psychological
impact of evidential presentations and other trial procedures (Kassin & Wrightsman, 1985; Yarmey, 2001), and
psychological consultation in such matters as jury selection and witness preparation (Nietzel & Dillehay, 1986). A
source of much controversy is the use of a psychologist as an expert witness. This issue has been vigorously debated
in a series of position papers and rebuttals by Loftus (1983a, 1983b) and McClosky and Egeth (1983a, 1983b),
which are summarized below.
PRO
In order to educate jurors, psychologists should share their knowledge of eyewitness credibility through expert
testimony.
1.
2.
3.
Innocent people have been convicted on the basis of erroneous eyewitness testimony that might have been
discredited if a psychologist had testified to its low credibility.
Juries are generally misinformed and need to hear expert psychological testimony on the following issues:
• The low correlation between witness confidence and identification reliability
• The effects of stress on eyewitness credibility
• The dramatic drop in memory retention over short periods
• The relation between race of eyewitness and race of suspect on accuracy of identification
• The effects of exposure duration, lighting conditions, viewing angle, and other variables on accuracy
of memory
Psychologists must demonstrate the merits of their discipline in the service of justice.
CON
Expert testimony by psychologists is not necessary to improve the ability of jurors to evaluate eyewitness testimony,
and it may have a detrimental effect on jury trials.
1.
2.
3.
4.
The “expert” testimony that psychologists offer is common knowledge and therefore redundant.
Psychological data are too messy or inconclusive to present before a court of law.
Psychology is ill-served by a battle of psychologically expert “hired guns” for the prosecution and defense.
Expert psychological testimony might tip the balance in favor of a guilty defendant if it destroyed juror
confidence in legitimate eyewitness accounts.
Kassin, S. A., & Wrightsman, L. S. (Eds.). (1985). The psychology of evidence and trial procedure. Beverly Hills,
California: Sage.
Loftus, E. F. (1983a). Silence is not golden. American Psychologist, 38, 564–572.
Loftus, E. F. (1983b). Whose shadow is crooked? American Psychologist, 38, 576–577.
McClosky, M., & Egeth, H. E. (1983a). Eyewitness identification: What can a psychologist tell a jury. American
Psychologist, 38, 550–563.
McClosky, M., & Egeth, H. E. (1983b). A time to speak, or a time to keep silence? American Psychologist, 38, 573–
575.
Nietzel, M. T., & Dillehay, R. C. (1986). Psychological consultation in the courtroom. New York: Pergamon Press.
Wells, G. L., & Loftus, E. F. (Eds.). (1984). Eyewitness testimony: Psychological perspectives. London: Cambridge
University Press.
Yarmey, D. A. (2001). Expert testimony: Does eyewitness memory research have probaative value for the courts?
Canadian Psychology, 42, 92–100
Classroom Activity 6.6: Demonstrating the Use of Mnemonics (E)
125
CHAPTER SIX
Overhead Masters or Handout Masters are provided with this activity.
Mnemonics are methods of using cues to help improve memory. One common method not presented in the text is
the peg-word method.
To demonstrate the peg-word method, tell the class that you will give them a grocery list of ten items and
you want them to memorize the items. Typically, for the peg-word method, you memorize a peg list. For this
demonstration, use Overhead Master 6.6 as the peg list. Put the list on the overhead projector while they are
memorizing the list and at time of recall.
Read the following list to the students at the rate of one word every 5 seconds. Tell the students to form as
vivid of an association between the grocery item and the peg word as they can. Tell them not to try to use rote
memory (repeating the grocery words over and over), and that they should, instead, trust the peg system.
1.
4.
7.
10.
hot dogs
soup
salsa
eggs
2.
5.
8.
milk
cheese
bread
3.
6.
9.
ice cream
chips
cereal
Some will feel that it is more work to remember the peg word associations than the list. Test them again
one week later and perhaps even tell them that you want only the third, fifth, and tenth items.
MULTIMEDIA
Online Learning Center Preview
Instructors should check the Online Learning Center for applicable PowerPoint slides and other resources relevant to
this chapter. Tables and figures available from the Image Gallery for this chapter are:




FIGURE 6-1: The Three Basic Processes of Memory
FIGURE 6-5: Long-Term Memory
FIGURE 6-12: Graph of Ebbinghaus Forgetting Experiment (Public Domain)
FIGURE 6-14: Proactive Interference
In-Psych Student CD-ROM
The In-Psych Student CD-ROM is organized according to the textbook chapter outlines and features exercises
chosen to illustrate especially difficult core introductory psychology concepts. Each exercise showcases one of three
types of media assets—an audio clip, a video clip, or a simulation—and includes a pre-test, follow-up assignments,
and Web resources. The CD-ROM also includes chapter quizzes, a student research guide, and an interactive
timeline that puts events, key figures, and research in psychology in historical perspective. As these
features effectively engage the student and help reinforce new knowledge retention, they function superbly as
homework or extra-credit assignments. The following [is/are] available on the CD-ROM for this chapter:
[Chapter 6 Memory]
Timeline
Short-Term Memory (Interactive Activity)
Iconic Memory (Interactive Activity)
Serial Position Effect (Interactive Activity)
Misinformation Effect (Video)
Eyewitness Memory (Audio)
Aging & Memory (Audio)
Chapter Quiz
126
MEMORY
Video Resources
FILMS FOR THE HUMANITIES AND SCIENCES
Memory: Fabric of the Mind (28 minutes)
The Study of Memory (74 minutes)
Alzheimer’s: Effects on Patients and Their Families (19 minutes)
Memory (57 minutes)
The Nature of Memory (26 minutes)
(Contact information for this material can be found in the Preface of this manual.)
PsychLink
www.mcgrawhill.ca/college/feldman
INDEPENDENT PROJECTS
Independent Project 6.1: Retrograde and Anterograde Amnesia
Assign a research project to students involving the two primary types of organically caused amnesia, retrograde and
anterograde. Students should include not only the definition of the disorders in their papers, but also the etiology,
symptoms, examples or case histories, and some of the diseases that feature one or more of these amnesias as a
major symptom (such as Alzheimer’s or Korsakoff’s diseases).
Independent Project 6.2: SQ3R as a Memory Aid (E)
Overhead Masters or Handout Masters are provided with this activity.
Robinson (1970) developed the SQ3R technique: survey, question, read, recite, and review. These concepts are
provided as Overhead Master 6.7. This technique has been shown to help students raise their grades at several
colleges (Adams, Carnine, & Gerston, 1982; Anderson, 1985). Survey refers to finding out what concepts are in the
chapter before you begin to read. For this text there is an outline at the beginning of each chapter, a summary at the
end of the chapter, and summaries in the Student Study Guide. It is also helpful to develop questions before you read
the material. This will help you to develop a method to look for important information. As you read, look for the
answers to your questions and jot down a few notes pertaining to the answers. Once you have read a section recite
an answer aloud. This will serve as an important learning check. If you cannot recite an answer soon after reading
the section, you certainly will have trouble at a later time. The last step is to review. You must review the material in
order to learn. If you have formed questions as part of the early step in this process go back a week later and see if
you can still answer the questions.
For an independent project, have the students try the SQ3R method before the next class period. During the
next class, discuss how that method differs from the methods they typically use. Also ask the students if they feel the
method works and to explain why or why not.
Adams, A., Carnine, D., & Gersten, R. (1982). Instructional strategies for studying content area texts in the
intermediate grades. Reading Research Quarterly, 18, 27–53.
Anderson, J. R. (1985). Cognitive psychology and its implications. 2nd ed. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.
Robinson, F. P. (1970). Effective study. 4th ed. New York: Harper & Row.
127
OVERHEAD MASTER 6.1 (USE WITH LECTURE LEAD 6.1)
Cognitive Interviews
1.
Mentally reinstating the environmental and
personal contact that occurred at the time the
crime was witnessed
2.
Encouraging the reporting of every detail,
regardless of how peripheral it is to the incident
reported
3.
Attempting to recount the incident in several
different orders (e.g., both forward and
backward)
4.
Attempting to report the incident from a range of
different perspectives, including that of other
prominent characters within the incident as well
as that of the witness
OVERHEAD MASTER 6.2 (USE WITH LECTURE LEAD 6.2)
Key Issues in the Repressed
Memory Debate
1.
Are we investigating repressed memories or false
memories?
2.
Are
emotional
and
disturbing
accentuated or repressed?
3.
Are we pitting clinical
scientific research?
4.
Could repressed
dissociation?
5.
Is it therapeutic to recover forgotten hardships or
traumas?
memories
experience
memories
be
a
against
form
of
OVERHEAD MASTER 6.3 (USE WITH CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.2)
Forward Digit Span
392
7459
23906
139364
8164780
23701456
792107696
1780804526
47712675188
995825339046
Backward Digit Span
45
088
4254
28394
705773
8714203
12651671
130143672
HANDOUT MASTER 6.4A (USE WITH CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.3)
I will read off a list of 24 words. Your task is to count or estimate the number of vowels in each
of the words presented. Do not write the word out. If you do not know how to spell the word or
run out of time simply estimate how many vowels you think the word has.
1. ____________________
13. ____________________
2. ____________________
14. ____________________
3. ____________________
15. ____________________
4. ____________________
16. ____________________
5. ____________________
17. ____________________
6. ____________________
18. ____________________
7. ____________________
19. ____________________
8. ____________________
20. ____________________
9. ____________________
21. ____________________
10. ____________________
22. ____________________
11. ____________________
23. ____________________
12. ____________________
24. ____________________
HANDOUT MASTER 6.4B (USE WITH CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.3)
In a minute I will read a list of 24 words. Your task is to rate on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = not
important at all; 5 = very important) how important each of the items would be to have if you
were stranded on a South Seas island.
1. ____________________
13. ____________________
2. ____________________
14. ____________________
3. ____________________
15. ____________________
4. ____________________
16. ____________________
5. ____________________
17. ____________________
6. ____________________
18. ____________________
7. ____________________
19. ____________________
8. ____________________
20. ____________________
9. ____________________
21. ____________________
10. ____________________
22. ____________________
11. ____________________
23. ____________________
12. ____________________
24. ____________________
HANDOUT MASTER 6.4C (USE WITH CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.3)
In a minute I will read a list of 24 words. Your task is to imagine yourself interacting with the
word presented in some way. For example, if the word presented is “sun,” you may imagine
lying on a beach. After you form the image, rate on a scale of 1 to 5 (1 = not vivid at all;
5 = very vivid) the vividness of each interaction. Caution: You will not have much time, so form
your images quickly.
1. ____________________
13. ____________________
2. ____________________
14. ____________________
3. ____________________
15. ____________________
4. ____________________
16. ____________________
5. ____________________
17. ____________________
6. ____________________
18. ____________________
7. ____________________
19. ____________________
8. ____________________
20. ____________________
9. ____________________
21. ____________________
10. ____________________
22. ____________________
11. ____________________
23. ____________________
12. ____________________
24. ____________________
HANDOUT MASTER 6.4D (USE WITH CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.3)
I would like you to now recall as many of the words presented on the list as you can. The words
do not have to be in the correct order.
1. ____________________
13. ____________________
2. ____________________
14. ____________________
3. ____________________
15. ____________________
4. ____________________
16. ____________________
5. ____________________
17. ____________________
6. ____________________
18. ____________________
7. ____________________
19. ____________________
8. ____________________
20. ____________________
9. ____________________
21. ____________________
10. ____________________
22. ____________________
11. ____________________
23. ____________________
12. ____________________
24. ____________________
OVERHEAD MASTER 6.5A (USE WITH CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.4)
JOM
RAB
ZUP
COF
FIW
MOH
GAX
DAR
WEJ
QOR
FOZ
TIJ
KOG
HUN
SEN
HANDOUT MASTER 6.5B (USE WITH CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.4)
I will present a list of nonsense syllables one at a time. When the list is completed, write down as
many of the syllables as you can recall in the correct order. Do not worry about getting all of the
words, simply do the best that you can. This will be repeated four times with the same syllables
and in the same order. After each trial fold this page back so that you cannot see the previous list.
Trial 1
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Trial 2
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Trial 3
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Trial 4
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
OVERHEAD MASTER 6.6 (USE WITH CLASSROOM ACTIVITY 6.6)
Peg Words
1 - Bun
2 - Shoe
3 - Tree
4 - Door
5 - Hive (Beehive)
6 - Sticks
7 - Heaven
8 - Gate
9 - Line
10 - Hen
OVERHEAD MASTER 6.7 (USE WITH INDEPENDENT PROJECT 6.2)
SQ3R Method
Survey
Question
Read
Recite
Review