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NEPAL A concise History of the Cultural Scenario of the Himalayan Kingdom Preface 'To put Nepal's culture in a nutshell' was the primary aim while writing this book. My talented cousin brother Pasupati Shamshere J. B. Rana, (M.P.) wanted me to write a chapter on Nepal's culture for a book Nepal which he wanted to compile. When I gladly agreed and started this seemingly easy work I realized how implacable a task it was. Nepal is one of the smallest countries in the world. But, as it lies between the two large subcontinents, having cultures dating back to the third millennium before Christ or beyond and as it has turned polychromatic and complex. This small country, approximately 500miles in length lying at the lap of Himalayas, the highest mountains in the world dividing the Chinese and Indian subcontinents, has been crossed by numerous people of different races and ethnic origin; people carrying trade and commerce, men of arts and letters, religious leaders and preaches, as well as humble grazers and bold adventurers. Therefore cultures from both these northern and southern neighbors flowed into this little and remote country. Kathmandu Mandala or the Central Valley which always remained the epicenter of Nepal, infact became a melting pot for all cultural influences to smelt together and metamorphose, giving a distinct Nepali shape to all forms, ideas and sounds imbibed from al sides. Likewise, the history and culture of Nepal is to a great extent a history of migration of people from outside the country into this land, of people of the country itself migrating from one part to other and also of people moving out of the country to solve their problem of mass poverty. This, coupled with the rugged geographical nature of the country and climate, ranging from the cold snowy mountains in the north to the warm tropical belt in the south kept migrating to an acceptable level. Thus for many centuries, there was inside the country, an ideal situation for various ethnic groups to foster. To squeeze the account of the culture of a country, with a long history of cultural changes and of people living in multiethnic and multilingual groups, into a few pages became almost impossible for me. The present book, has not been able to do full justice in recording a complete history and culture of Nepal. But then from the incept my aim was to write a concise account of the culture of Nepal, which would help readers to get an overall view of its cultural scenario, within a reasonably short time. So the result has been, a book on Nepal, placed between the scholarly works and sloppy writing on this subject close to my heart. As a student of history, I know the limitations, even pitfalls in producing such a work, where both painstaking research and scrutinized authenticity would be lacking. I can almost foretell the controversies that the ideas expressed or conjectures made in this book may raise. But I am sure, to those who want to get a concise coordinated view on the fairly long and varied cultural scenario of this small and interesting country, this book would provide enough that one can gather by reading a small book on a wide subject. To such common readers and lovers of culture, I dedicate this book. My thanks are due to my dear brother Pashupati Rana who inspired me to write on this subject, to my daughter-in-law Dolly Rana who corrected and typed the entire script; to my dear daughter Kavita Singh who painstakingly recasted the structure of language of this work, thanks are due to my friend RD Sharma Yuyutsu, and Nirala Publications for publishing this book and to my son Amar Rana for setting the script and casting the format. Jagadish Rana In December 1991, a small orchestral group from Germany visited Kathmandu valley in Nepal, to play the music of Mozart in commemoration of the bicentenary of the great Austrian master. When they visited the ancient town of Bhaktapur, they were ceremoniously taken along the traditional festival route of the town by one of the most proficient groups or drummers who have been perpetuating the ancient music of the valley through verbal tradition. Both the groups of musicians stood on the steps of Natapola (the five storied pagoda) from where they played alternately to the sheer delight of the rapturous audience- the guests from Europe and the local inhabitants of this ancient temple-town. Such cultural exchanges and the desire to project the uniqueness of one's culture is the foundation-stone of the spirit and essence of the cultural scenario we are witnessing today. Though Nepal is a small, remote and under-developed country according to today's standards, nevertheless, it is a vast store-house of art and culture.it is no exception to this end-of-the 20th century-phenomena. The unprecedented developed of audio-visual technology has affected the attitudes and enthusiasm of people, even in the remotest corners of the world. It has contributed, in no small measure to "the taste for the exotic". Besides, it has brought with it awareness, pride and renewed interest in one's cultural heritage. Recently the French Cultural Centre in Nepal, sponsored a public performance of one of the most exotic Tantric dances, the Bhairava. It was novel experience for the troupe of dancers, whose tradition is traced back to the 17th century. They had never before performed on stage in tandem with modern acoustics. In recent years, foreign scholars, historians, sociologists and men of arts have turned their attention to this exotic culture. Recording in the letters as well as films of the very primitive culture, The Honey- Hunters of Nepal became a readers' favorite book as well as a successful telecast. With fast paced globalization engulfing the life of the Nepalese, they are more tenaciously clinging on to the deeper values of their religion, language, art and literature. They have realised that the taste for the exotic is an international phenomenon and has increased the opportunity for the trade of international crafts. Today cities, towns and villages, even in far-flung areas have shops selling quaint artfacts, ranging from stones and beads of every hue and texture to exquisite objects d' art. Most of them are imitations of original paintings, scriptures, lacquered boxes and bric-a-brac. Given the vast number of ethnic groups that existed and still do, the range of crafts is mind-boggling, especially to the foreigners who are the products of an assemblyline culture, which produces hundreds of imitations within a matter of minutes. As the world is getting smaller with better communication systems, the osmosis of ideas is greater, as a result of which the Nepalese are increasingly treasuring their cultural heritage, the uniqueness of which, sets them apart from the rest of the world. This has given emergence to a conscious nationalism, the off-shoots of which is flowering in the form of cultural awareness. It is little wonder that this has been reflected in the new democratic constitution of Nepal where a special place has been given to the conservation and development of ethnic languages and culture. A new fervor of cultural identity, awareness and common for one's local and national culture has swept the length and breadth of this Himalayan kingdom. The numerous ethnic groups, some large and some small, each with their unique tradition and culture, ranging from the very primitive to the highly developed ones, still co-exists in the country. It is interesting to observe this cotemporary cultural euphoria before we go into the history and development of Nepalese culture. In the remotest part of western Nepal lies the vast expanse of the mountainous region of Karnali. The landscape here comes alive with rocks and stones chiseled by men, dotting the scenario. A few shrines dating back to the first century A.D. remain. There also exist groups of stupas and forgotten caves (Bhotegumbas) of Tibetan origin and numerous manuscripts in the state of neglect and decay. In the last decade, the local inhabitants and the archaeological department have focused their attention on these relics. The dream of discovering unknown civilization in Sinja and other places is becoming a reality. Libraries of old texts are being organized. Painting of Thankaa (banner and wall paintings for gumbas or monasteries) are being carried out seriously. The local cultural heads are eager to prove the existence of a distinctive Karnali culture. Similarly, in far eastern parts of Nepal, to the east of River Arun (called Limbhwan) the Limbus claim that their sovereignty once spread right upto Kathmandu and they established the Kirati dynasty before the Christian Era. They are now reconstructing the old Kirati script, developing the Limbu dialect and are establishing claim to a Limbhu culture. To region called Khumbuwan ( a derivation from the Khumbu glacial region) is predominated by the Rais who are divided in to more than eighteen sub-sects. Sandwiched between the Sherpas in the northwest, the Chhetries and the Hindu Brahamins in the south, the Rais are deeply influenced by the religion and culture of these three groups, and have ultimately evolved a pot-pourri of cultures distinctively their own. Yet they are now looking back into past traditional history in an attempt to link it to the present and thus establish the existence of a Rai culture. Likewise, the ethnic tribes like the Gurungs, Magars, Tamangs and Tharus are those among the many who are caught up in the vortex of the recent cultural awareness wave and are trying to assert that they have a distinct culture with their own tribal history. In fact, most tribal groups lived in multiethnic societies. A typical example is the area along the Mahabharata Ranges. One of the regions is inhabited by the Chepang and Dhimal tribes along the rivers Rapti and Narayeni. Even today they hunt birds and small game with bows and arrows and practice shift cultivation, growing "Chiuri" trees which are a source of both fruits and seed-oil. The region below the banks of the two rivers is occupied by the Danuwar and Majhi tribes, who have depended on fishing and small farming since generations. In this region, we also find the larger Tharu tribes, who have been waging a battle for survival between man and forest. They have been cultivating patches of land amidst grasslands and dense saal forests. This tribe is more developed culture. Today, the Tharus are vehemently claiming a distinct language, dance, music, rituals and social customs of their own. Sociologists and anthropologists have written extensively about this tribe. It is rather interesting to note that Kapilavastu (the birth place of Gautama The Buddha situated in the western Terai region of Nepal) and Mithila ( the well-planned city of the legendary king Janak), are both developing into religious centers. Extensive archaeological excavation are in progress in Kapilavastu, besides the construction of new buildings for pilgrims who are pouring in large numbers from eastern Asia. At Janakpur, the famous Janaki temple has become an important itinerary for Hindu pilgrims. It has also provided impetus for the revival of the Maithali culture, which today claims a second place after the national language of Nepal. At the center of these cultural activities lies Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. The valley called Kathmandu Mandala, has always remained central to the history of Nepal. Whether it is the distant Kingdom of Sinja in the remote Karnali region or the Kirants, they all claimed to have conquered this central city at one time or another. Like Rome of ancient times, all roads of Nepal lead to Kathmandu. In this small valley of approximately with an area of 218 Sq. miles, there are more than 50,000 exquisitely constructed and artistically decorated temples, shrines and with millions of icons. Today, Kathmandu is witnessing the clamor of different tribes and clans of Nepal, seeking maximum attention and patronage for their respective cultures from the Government of Nepal. It is in this store-house of culture that numerous art-thefts have been carried out by organized gangs vying to make big money from illegal trades. It is here indeed that within a few decades the number of foreign tourists who increased several folds. It is in the streets and by-lanes of this prosperous valley hat apart from listening to strains of traditional music and witnessing some superbly rendered traditional dances and ritualistic processions, one comes across rows of dainty shops dealing with antiques and quaint souvenirs symbolizing the cultural heritage of Nepal. This rich cultural heritage if Kathmandu valley; the rising consciousness and concern for traditional culture among the townies and country folk of the mountainous regions, the various ethnic groups scattered all over the country and the quest of ethnic and cultural groups to be recognized as a distinct entity of the national culture, is a phenomena which is deeply embedded in the history of the cultural development of Nepal. Some conjectures on what might have transpired since the dawn of history o this land, would help in understanding the factors which shaped our early culture as it passed through the stages of development. In the absence of concrete and authentic evidence, we can trace cultural history of Nepal only from the third century A.D. Even as the stout race of this rough and rugged land came out of primordial slime, to a great extent its cultural development was determined by the strong geographical forces. The extreme topographical and climatic conditions of these areas become a controlling factor, keeping the influx of invaders and immigrants at an average keel. Earlier the ratio between man and forest was vastly different from what now exists. Each tribe was restricted to their region by the natural barriers of mountains, rivers and forests. The climate ranged from the snow-capped Himalayan ranges down to the hot tropical forest in the narrow corridor of land. It created races and tribes with varying cultural habits, customs, and the development of multicultural and tribal races. Therefore, even today, the Nepalese society is predomainly tribal based, though the Brahmanism caste system has juxtaposed over the tribal pattern. This system was brought in by the immigrants who have been feeling the onslaught of invaders after having traversed the plains of Hindustan. Nepal is approximately 800 kms in length 170 kms in breadth and lies between the two most populated countries of the world, China to the north and India to the south. Over the years, the Tibetans from the north and the Indians from the south, east and west made inroads into this mountainous land, bringing with them their cultural mores. When the people of different cultures are thrown together, conflict arise. Creating order out of chaos being a human instinct, each contributes and adopts the habits, beliefs and cultural patterns of the other to some extent thus creating a culture which has a distinct individualistic flavor. In the beginning, the main occupation of these tribes was hunting and living entirely on the abundant bounty of nature’s forests and river produce. In fact, even today tribes such as the Dhimals, Danuwars, Lepchas and Chepangs follow this practice. Subsequently, it was substituted by agriculture, in particular, shift cultivation which was most widely practiced besides the rearing of cattle for milk, meat, wool and hide. In the cold subHimalayan region, the yak was imperative for survival. In summers the cattle was imperative for survival. In summer the cattle was brought into the Himalayan pastures for grazing and in winters moved down to the narrow, warmer valley just below the mountains or even to the Tibetan plateau on the other side of the Himalayas. Therefore, there was great similarity in the customs and habits of the people in the northern borders of Tibet, thought the Tibetans led a more nomadic life. In the Terai (the southern part of Nepal bordering India), the situation was different. The inhabitants of this region had to wage an incessant and often frustrating struggle against the forest. As soon as a patch of land was cleared of trees for cultivation the forest encroached into this land. Adding to this, a dreadful disease called Aul (a virulent type of malaria) forced the settlers to retreat. The Tharus, Danuwaras, and Majhees who ventured to live in this area, struggled hard against nature. They developed their own social systems and remained aloof from those outside their own clan. Therefore the culture, habits and ethnic customs remained untouched by the Brahmanic cult for a long time, even though their realm formed part of the states and principalities that were formed early in the history of the surrounding areas. In the region between the sub-Himalayan strip and the Terai, there are a large number of tribal groups. Starting from the east there are the Limbus, Rais, Tamangs, Gurungs, Magars and Thakuries. Though some historians and anthropologists slot them into a broad category of Mangoloid and Aryan races, the social and cultural development of these tribes warrants a more careful study. The tribal culture of the innumerable tribes of Nepal is integral in tracing the cultural development of the country through the centuries to its present day. The Ramayana gives vivid descriptions of Maithali, the well-planned city of King Janak, situated in the eastern Terai. The treatise of Yagnayabalka (the law gives of ancient times) in his Yagnayabalka Samhita, even today provides guidelines for Hindu social mores and customs and is ample proof of the highly advanced society of that period. As per the ancient philosophers and Rishis (men of wisdom and knowledge) we have evidence in scriptures and their legal or philosophical treatises. However, more documentary evidence is available of events after the 6th century. BC. During this period, 16 states, some governed by hereditary rulers and some by republican laws, sprang up in northern India, alone the Indo-Gangetic plains. Those alone the Terai included parts of Nepal and India. Among them the Sakya republic, with its capital at Kapilvastu in western Nepal and Magadha, with its capital at Patna in India, extended far into the foothills of Nepal. By this time, the Aryans had formed their own settlements, set-up their social and administrative systems based on Vedic or Brahmanical principals and were engaged in activities generating wealth. Trade and commerce flourished, well-planned cities were built, art and culture received impetus. The Terai region of Nepal with neighboring Kapilavastu and Mithila were within this cultural perimeter. Beyond this region dwelt the Kiranta tribe. Though very little is know about their nascent history, we find some references which actually connotes the tribes and races inhabiting the border of the civilized country. Though much has been written about their culture by some writers, in my humble opinion, the Kirantas were primarily a wandering tribe who lived by hunting with bows and arrows and traded woolen shawls. How did the flow of Brahmanic Hindu culture affect the Culture of the Kirants? How did the traditional tribal culture merge? How did the effervescent Brahmanic culture metamorphose? To what degree did the new culture set a pattern for the future culture development in Nepal? Answers in these will remain mere speculation till authentic evidence is dug out from the debris of the past. Nevertheless, historical evidence of early Licchavi culture asserts that the advance culture art and served in various stella and sculptures cannot be historically disconnected. The continuum of such cultural development must necessarily have a long history. Lack of tangibl evidence and facilities for delving deep into such a distant past should not lead us to believe that the wonderful Licchavi culture simply bloomed and withered away like seasonal flowers. Fro the metamorphosis of different cultures in this wonderful melting pot of culture, namely, Kathmandu Mandala, we are able to make a sound tribal structure to a more urban and urban culture in later years, as we shall now see. That the Katmhandu valley was at one time a huge lake is an accepted fact, but when exactly the water drained out, leaving a huge valley, fertile in soil, rich in forest and aqua reserves, with plenty of water, Buddhists, Tantriks and Nathapatis claim that it was their respective lords, who, by a miraculous strock cut a gorge and drained the valley of its aquatic pressure. Soon after, the valley becomes habitable. Grezers and tribes from neighboring areas flocked into this fertile land. The hunting, wandering tribe of Kirantas seems to have occupied this valley and kept it under their tribal possession. Primary sources of Nepal’s history provide impressive genealogies of Kiranta kings. It is possible that they wrested the valley from the pastoral dynasties. The pastoral culture of the valley seems to have been superseded by the tribal culture of the Kirantas, who claimed to have covered mountainous areas to the east, north and even some wester regions of the valley. In some pasts of the country they had come together under powerful leaders and were subjugating land as far as they could with humble means at their disposal. That the Kiranta tribe was an organized group of people with definitive social and administrative systems, having vast areas of the country under their sovereignty, is a much doubted probability. In fact, there is no concrete evidence to support this claim. Though not much is know about the nature of kingship and kinship relation during this period, it can be reasonably presumed that the Kirantas had a number of tribal chiefs, some warring amongst themselves and others bound by kinship and convenient alliance. Their religion appears to have been animistic. The head of the clan was highly respected and even took the form of an imaginary deity, whom they worshipped as benefactor and protector of the clan (the fore-runner of the later Buda Subba or Masta deity). The Kirantas possessed rudimentary knowledge of fort architecture and were engaged in the aesthetics of making bead ad stone necklace. Though their major occupation was hunting, fishing, fighting and extend their areas of suzerainty, farming and trade was also practiced. This supported their activities concerning warfare, fortification and the protection of their realm. Such activities obviously demanded a language more elaborate than rural dialects. Subsequently, Kirantai scripts were developed. But it would be rather far fetched to say, that the language, literature and script were all developed at an early stage when the tribes were not yet consolidate. The non-Sanskrit names and words used in the chronicled by the Licchavis who superseded the Kiranta rulers of the valley is inadequate proof that the Kiranti language was developed during the early centuries of the Christian Era, nor is the mention of Kiranti sounding names of persons and places in the valley enough to prove that the Kirantas had developed literature and arts at that time. Of this was so, when the Kiranta overlords were driven out of the valley to mountainous realms, they would have carried this knowledge with them and bettered it there. Recent discoveries of pieces of stone axes and caves, probably belonging to the Paleolithic age in the sub-Himalayan regions along the Darchula-Manang belt have provided enough food for thought to anthropolpgists to venture into the antiquity of the cultural history of this mountainous kingdom. We cannot ignore the continuum of cultural development of the 6th century BC, the ear of Gautam budha. It is a watershed period of the history of the sub-continent, so richlt described in the scriptures, epics, dharma-shastra (legal treatise), legends and folklores. The Brahmanic society and culture which dates back to the Vedic period must have had some influence upon the momadic tribe inhabiting te border lands of the civilized plains of Bharat varsha, the Himalayan recluse where the sages of ancient times sought penance and contemplation, the planned cities at the foot-hills of Nepal and places like Kapilavastu (where the protest againt complicated rituals and high – browed philosophies and agonizing caste system was brewing and a stage was being set for more popular beliefs), were in the mid-stream of cultural fermentation of the sub-continent. The supersession of the Kirantas by the Licchavis was not a swift and sudden event. The rulers of Vaishali, who were famous even at the time of Buddha, seem to have been impelled by circumstance to establish a new state in the Himalayas in the early centuries of the Christian ear. Though there is mention of the Licchavis defeating a Kiranta king, is to be found of them invading the valley, the predominance of the Kiranta stock in the valley, the juxtaposition and surely not replacement of the foundation of the tribal culture by the infiltrators from India and the adoption of a monarchial regime by the Licchhavis, who were well-known republicans of the sixteen states of early India, leads us to believe that a cultural metamorphosis of sorts took place in the valley. the conquerors assimilated some practices and some words of the conquered race, enforced a feudal system and institutationalized religion among the people of the valley. Even before Ashoka’s missionary zeal sent Buddhist missionaries to this affluent valley, Indianization of the ingenious tribal culture had begun. Some off-shoots of the Licchavis had already proceeded the Buddhist missionaries. The area around Pashupati, the predominant deity of the valley, was already marked. Some idols which were already being worshipped, such as Shiva, in the form of Kiranta, had already set a pattern for the future when Pashupati itself was to be worshipped by Buddhiss as Avalokiteswara. The influence of Kushana (Mathura school) art in early sculptures and terracotta images, the existence of Hindu monarch, much before the Buddhist missionaries of Ashoka visited the valley and erected Buddhist stupas and established Buddhist viharas adjacent to the Pashupati Temple are evidence of early Brahmanic culture prevailing in the valley. Therefore when we arrive at the beginning of the historical period of the Licchavis derived by calculating the average rule of the predecessors of the king, Mana Deva, whose pillar inscription at Changu Narayan Temple is regatded as the first written and recorded chronicle, which is assumed to be 300 AD, the Kathmandu valley was already ruled by rulers who had not only established feudal patterns, but also brought in Aryan or Barhmanic tradition, the Sanskrit language and also artistic forms from India. Hinduism and Buddhism was practiced aide by side and they had considerable influence on the culture of this valley. The co-existence and intermingling of these two religions can be best illustrated by the fact the while King Mana Deva was a devout Hindu who patronized Buddhist centers, his great – grand father Vrsadeva, was a devout Buddhist who laid the foundation of Svayambhu Stupa, the most important Buddhist Monument of Nepal. The Licchavi chronicle sapns almost six centuries from 300 AD to 879 Ad. Many winds of change blew during this era. Due to lack of evidence the dawn of this period can be fathomed only be imagination. But we know that the Licchavis who were concentrated around Vaishali in India, slowly penetrated the valley which was then fifth century, the Licchavi rulers subdued the Kirantas in the east (whom they called Satha and Scoundrels) and the Tibetans in the north. They rose in eminence and consolidated their position. During the 6th and 7th century, there were weak kings with powerful Samantas (noblemen) who wielded the power in actual practice. Prominent examples are the Ahira Guptas and Samanta Amsuverma of the late 5th and early 6th century, there were weak kings with powerful king, Narendra Deva, restored authority and power of the rulers in their own domain. From the middle of the 8th century, the list of Liccahavi rulers of eminence draws to a close. But the smelting of diverse religions and cultural practices in Nepal mandala produced a cultural metamorphosis of such a dimension that it necessitated the naming of a new Era-the Nepal Samvata in 879 AD, which marks the end of the Licchavi period. To put down the culture of such a long and eventful period in a few paragraphs is an impossible task. However, the Licchavis left such a profound and everlasting mark in the cultural development of Nepal, that it would not be wrong to call it the most important period of Nepal’s cultural history. Two major factors are responsible for the prolific development of culture during the Licchavi period. Firstly, the Licchavi rulers were not only tolerant to all ideas, religions and thoughts but also patronized all works of art and culture between India on the one side, and Tibet and China on the other, and developed the Kathmandu valley as an important Centerport. This uncensored traffic of ideas and flow of trade contributed intellectually as well as economically to the development of culture during this period, another factor that shaped and contributed to the promotion and development of culture in Kathmandu Mandala was agriculture. The valley was one of the first regions in the Himalayan Mountains where settled cultivation had replaced the practice of shift cultivation. As along the strips of land along the river Nile I ancient Egypt, it was in the narrow fields of this fertile valley that geometrical system of farming was practiced. This equipped the inhabitants of the valley with a first hand knowledge of geometry, which is reflected in the temple architecture as well as in the econometric of the icons and sculptures of Nepal. Moreover, abundant crops in the valley gave the artisans ample resources and leisure time to indulge in arts and festivities. Besides, their feudal masters were wealthy enough to support arts and crafts. By the beginning of 5th century, the Licchavis who belonged to a republican state in India had established an absolute monarchy in the valley. the state was however skillfully administered according to rigorously established laws, contrary to those based on tradition and used in the tribal administration before the advent of the Licchavis. Institution was set up to regulate and govern the liaison between the rulers and the ruled. Religious congregations as well as Panchalikas (local units) enjoyed auto money. Benefit public-work was carried out by the state which also levied taxes. Land tenure was regulated, which was predecessor of the land system that followed later. Agriculture flourished and trade and economy was at its best. Though the Licchavis did not introduce Hinduism and Buddhism in the valley, nevertheless, their presence nurtured the seeds of these religions through the intermingling of traders, monks and mendicants who moved freely during this period. Along side, these major religions and their pantheons, local gods, mother – goddesses, grandmother – goddesses, and demi – gods originating from local culture were also worshipped. A notable example is the Bunga Deo, which remained a village god till it was transferred into Lord Matsendra Nath, by the Hindus and Avalokiteswara and Karunamaya by the Buddhists of different sects much later. Therefore, it is not a matter of coincidence, that the palace of the licchavi King Mana Deva (464-505 AD) named Mana Griha, from where the Licchavi rulers ruled till the middle of the seventh century and the palace of Samanta Amshuverma (605-621 AD) so elaborately described and gloriously praised of their size and architectural beauty were built during the early Licchavi period. Similar factors were responsible for development of three important religious places and accompanying architeures and sculptures, namely, the main Pashupati Temple and other temples and icons within the periphery of this abode of Loard Shiva (which claims remote origin), the Svayambhunath Stupa (425 AD approx.), the matchless icons of the Hindu god Vishnu and his companion, Changu Narayan (Muna Deva – 464 0 505 AD), which are to this day regarded as the most important religious pilgrimages for the Hindus and Buddhists of the valley, all belongs to the early Licchavi period. The Licchavis were great patrons of arts. There were rulers like Amshuverma, whose praises were sung by Chinese pilgrims many years after their death. He is credited to give read the shastras day and night, written treaties on rhetoric, introduced Sanskrit grammar, formed and documented judicial regulations, made bountiful donations to all gods of the Nepali pantheon. Chinese chroniclers and Nepalese genealogies have given elaborate descriptions of the excellence of Licchavi architecture and most of the temples are from that period, but they are end – products of a long succession of repairs and modifications. Many temples in Nepal, built in later times were built on the Licchavi sculptures. Here, it will be relevant to mention at least two among 45 pieces of recorded Licchavi sculptures. The icon of Buddha Nilakanth, in north Kathmandu valley, is a 27 feet long massive sculpture, which was commissioned by King Vishnu Gupta in 641 AD. It is apparently the icon Vishnu lying on the bed formed by the coiled serpent, Naga, in a pool of water. Beneath it, is another in the same stone of equal size. The Nilakantha Shiva is submerged in the water (the neck is marked blue with the venom he swallowed). Though ignorant, unmindful and reckless authorities have, by wanton use of cement at the bottom of the pond, obliterated the image of Shiva. An icon of this size and magnificence, representing the unity of the Vaishnavite and Shaivite sets is the only one of its kind in the world. The volume of the sculpture, the sure strocks of the sculptor’s chisel, the serenity of expression, the almost impossible representation of the softness of the beds of coiled snake, the smooth and polished upper layer of icon, is no ordinary feat, which only the Licchavi sculptors could have achieved. The other image is of child-god Krishna over – powering the maleficent serpent Kaliya. This image which was placed in the Kathmandu Darbar by a Malla King is perhaps the most perfect Licchavi stone master – piece. The volume is well-represented, as in all Licchavi sculptors, the deftness of the sculptors’ strokes, the iconographic unity and the movement enshrined in the stone masterpiece ought to be seen to be believed. Apart from architecture and sculpture, the Licchavis were also given to danced and music. Some of the rulers themselves were well versed in literature. Dramas in Sanskrit were written and staged. The Chinese travelers described the blowing of trumpets and beating of drums. This read together with the Lele Stele of 640 AD whivh mentions Baja Guthi (trust land given for propagation of music) and the Dhimay Naubaja ensemble leaves no doubt that the musical tradition which exists today was established during the Licchavi period. Manuscripts have been found with choregraphic charts. This establishes the theory that the art of dancing was encouraged during that period. For all these reasons and the peace and prosperity that prevailed, the fifth, sixth and seventh centuries are regarded as the finest period of Nepalese culture. At the dawn of the 8th century, two significant historical events took place. In 704 AD the Lacchavi king, Sivadeva II, freed Nepal from the Tibetan Yoke and encouraged free trade with this northern neighbor. Secondly, the matrimonial alliance between Licchavis and the Maukhari rulers of Kanauj not only enhanced the power of the Licchavis, but also encouraged intermingling of people and trade with the southern neighbors. Though from the 4th century AD the Chinese monks and scholars had started visiting India, specially the universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila, with the emergence of Pala dynasty in Bengal, Buddhism received ample patronage and Buddhist masters from Nalanda Mahavira and other centers of Buddhist learning started moving northwards to perch their religion. Indian Buddhism passed through this rich valley to Tibet. The religions climate in Tibet was not at all conducive to these eminent Buddhist teachers, who went there in the eight century one after the other. There was also an ideological clash between the Bon religionist of Tibet and the Idealists of Indian Buddhism. All three eminent Buddhist teachers, Shanti Rakshita, Padma Sambhava, Kamla Siddhi lived for some years in the Kathmandu valley before they proceeded to Tibet respectively. In fact Buddhism also adopted many rituals from other religions and sects particulary from ritually-rich Hinduism. In this religious climate the masters from Nalanda devised religious system to suit the requirements of the Tibetan people and dismissed the confusion about Busddhism. Among the three, Padma Sambhaba (717 – b 775 AD) wanted to open a Buddhist centre in Nepal where Tibetan Buddihst could be provided shelter and other facilities to safeguard their faith and existence in time so emergency. According, in 745 AD Buddha Nath shrine was established. In this artistically prominent and impressive center, dominating the scenario of the valley, Lamaism, a ritualistic branch of Buddhism was devised. To this day, this sect is predominant among the Tibitan Buddhists and bordering areas in northern Nepal. When rituals and complex practices were containing the once simple and puritans religion of Buddha, a new sect of preachers emerged from Pala’s Bengal ad entered Nepal. They were the Siddha Chaaryas or the accomplished ones. Through their songs called Charya Pada or Chacha (in Nepal) they sought to induce a socio-religious purge on Brahmanic traditions and expose the hollowness of superstitions ad scholastic speculations. Though the Sahajacharyas derived the inspirations from Mahayana Buddhism, they conveyed the moral principals of religion in simple language and songs, easily understood by the common man. The teachings of these accomplished Gurus with their songs emphasizing simple moral and practical principals of religion Crosse all barriers of caste and class. Since these preachers were not bound to any instauration, but wandered far and wide, their examples were followed by many and thus, began the dawn of a new era. These Siddha Charya not only added to the complicated patterns of diverse religious practices of the valley but also penetrated into the interiors of Nepal, where simple tribal people were attracted to their songs of divine virtues. When such was the state of religious fermentation that was shaping the sociocultural climate of Nepal, Sankaracharya (788-820 AD) the preacher of monotheistic Hindu religion came into the valley. a powerful exponent of Hindu religion philosophy, he had successfully carried out an aggressive policy of conversion to the monotheistic Hinduism in Nepal, which was an important factor between the creation of Buddhist atmosphere under the missionary zeal of Ashoka’s emissaries and the establishment of Nath Cult by Gorakh Nath. To initiate conversion, the followers of Sankaracharya first extricated the Pashupati Nath temple from the Tantric and other degenerate sects A clever compromise was set by allowing the Tantras to continue their practice in a limited way and surrender the charge of the shrine as well as grant the authority of introducing Shankaracharya’s system in and sound the temple. Thus established, Shamkara’s code of religious practice was ringorously improvised. Firstly, among the Brahmanis (who were following faltering rituals) and then among the converted followers of their sects. This monotheism of Vedanta was nothing but imperialism in Indo-Nepalese religious experiences supported by landlords and bourgeois views. Shankara’s Vendanta could not dominate Nepalese life and Instauration which was restricted to India under the patronage of feudal rulers. Nevertheless, Shankara’s advent was shot in-arm to Hindu religion, which was faltering under the pressures of Buddhism, Tantrism and many local sects and beliefs. The influence of Shankara was so strongly felt by the Nepalese Buddhists during the early decades of the 9th century, tat they stated compromising with several nonBuddhist cults. This led to the development of mythical Bodhisattvas in the Buddhist pantheon of Nepal. Many artists adopted the model of Bodhisattvas as their favorite art in designs of fulfill the demands of the Buddhists in Nepal and other countries beyond the Himalayas. However, Buddhism suffered because of the predominance of neo-Buddhist in its organizations, who did not hesitate to follow the Hindustic rituals and hereditary caste structures. When such was the state of affairs of religion and cultural in Nepal, Gorkhanath, who dominated the socio-cultural scenario of Nepal in the second half of the 9th century, made his mark. He brought a large number of dissidents from various sects into the folds of his Yogamaya doctirine, expounded in simple couplets (dohas) and touching human sentiments from religious devotion to mysticism and welfare in the present life and deliverance in future. He revolutionized the frame of philosophy and religious life. Though he failed to impart a mass appeal to the monotheism strengthened by Sankaracharaya who preceded him, he and his Nath Panthis (following Nath doctrines) were successful in affixing ‘Nath’ to many gods in Nepal including Pashupati. The old and traditionally respected Bungadeo was given the name of his teacher, the mystic Macchindra Nath and four important Nath centers were similarly named. By mid-ninth century AD, the cultural scenario in Nepal Mandala the beyond had changed to a great extent since the earlier period of the Licchavi rule. The two dominant religions, Hinduism and Buddhism had also thrown many off-shoots and as a result, various sects and cults had emerged. The entire stretch from Tibet across Nepal to the centers of Buddihst learning in India was studded with religious teachers of different sects. Tibetans and Buddhists came to Nepal to learn from the Nepalese scholars and vice-versa, yet the Nepalese school of religion was developing its distinct trends. In a tiny country where so many religious and philosophical ideas, cults and rituals mushroomed and mingled, it was but natural for one to influence the other Instances of one religious centre or temple being used by people of a different sect and practicing their own brand of worship and meditation become common. This influence was reflected not only in the writings of religious treatises but also in the writings of religious treatise but also in sculptures, temples and the arts. Hindu gods and goddesses in the form of Boddhi Sattavas and Buddhist pantheons in Hindu temples become a common feature in many street corners, temples, palaces, courtyards and homes. God like Tara, Bhairava, Ganesha and Kali become common to most religious and sects. Tatrism emerged as a dominant cult that brought about a unique fusion between both Hinduism and Buddhism. This influence dominated the religious practices, festival and dances of valley. the Kathmandu valley, which had remained a prosperous Centerport become economically and culturally rich. A new culture was emerging. An exotic and colorful, loaded with mysticism and cult practices. The time had come for the Nepalese to knowledge their unique and separate identity. An ear had dawned that justified the naming of a separate Nepal Samvat; thus in October 879 AD began the Nepal Samvat (era). With this the Licchavi period came to an end. Due to lack of historical documentation, this period of Nepal’s history is termed by western writers as a dark age of Nepalese History. But the new Era for the Transition Period of Nepalese socio-cultural life was a period of marked religious fermentation and cultural syncretism. The Kathmandu Mandala, which had seen great religious tolerance and assimilation of various religious beliefs now become a huge melting pot in which both major and minor religious systems were metamorphosed, favoring the growth of syncretism religious cults. It was only in 1307 AD during the reign of Jaystallised. Therefore, this period which comprises the rule of the later Licchivis and early Mallas (1200 AD onward) can be logically viewed as a composite cultural era. During this period, under successive weak Kings, the central government collapsed. This Licchavi state was carved into scores of petty kingdoms under hereditary lords or hill – top barons. In the surrounding settlements a sort of de-o’s cult, centering on shrine and temples grew. The people of these settkements attached themselves more closely to the respective sects, monasteries, viharas or gurus that existed there. The Gosthi of early Licchavi period which now changed into Guthi, took the form of a group of people within a settlement or parts of it, who were bound by some kinship and a social form askin to that of an enlarged family group. The loyalties to these Guthis were strong. In the general climate of disintegration of the central power, it gave succor. Within the Guthi were voluntary culture group which provided for both entertainment ad formed religious rules. From the ninth century onwards, Buddhaism in Tibet suffered neglect for almost three centuries and the Tibetans sought teachers, texts and cult objects southwards. By the 10th century the Palas of Bengal were superseded by Sena rulers who followed Brahmanical religion. With the emergence of Senas in eastern India and the ascendance of Karnatka Kashatriya who were staunch Hindus in Bihar, Nepal remained the only heaven for the Buddhist. Though Gunakama Deva, the ruler of Nepal made valuable contribution to the Shaivist religious center as Pashupati Nath, almost simultaneously, the Buddhists were converting the four centers of Matsysndra, Nath in the valley into Buddhist pantheon Avalokiteswar when Gunakama Deva revived the chariot festival of Matsyandra Nath, it was not only the Shaivites but also the Buddhists who participated with equal enthusiasm, each paying obeisance and performing rituals to the same deity in their respective in their respective ways Similarly, King Rudra Dev, the successor to Gunakama Deva is said to have retired as a Banda to a Buddhist vihara. This shows that from 11th century onwards Nepal was marked by unprecedented religious fermentation and syncretism tendencies, resulting from contact, conflict and the eventual compromise of several major and minor religions. During this time when weak kings rules the land, not only were the middle class presenting its unprecedented social role but it is said that even slaves, debtors and ordinary farmers (the Jyapus) were permitted to enter the Sangha (Buddhist congregation). There were servable Buddhist viharas from the elaborately run once like the Mahabuddha Vihara of Patan, Bodhanatha, the major attraction for Lamaist sects to those inside private houses of Guru or Guvaju in a Bahala or quadrangle of lay buildings. Such proliferation of centers of religious studies and the mercantile enterprise, carried on by the inhabitants of the valley facilitated in creating an ideological bridge between India and Tibet. All steams of Buddhism during this period flowed into Nepal, which led to a marvelous rapprochement of ideas in the filed of religion, philosophy, fine arts. Music, popular lyrics, designs, ichnography, paintings and temple architecture. We can not but mention the great role played by Tantricism, esoteric, erotic, psychometric, mystic and ritualistic in promoting syncretistic religious thoughts and practices. It was Tantricism which ultimately succeeded in brining about a peculiar union between Shaivism and Buddhism, which is represented beautifully in the Sambhara (YabYum) images painted and crafted during this period. The Buddhist viharas played a significant part in the filed of tantricism. The houses of eminent Buddhist teachers were virtually schools for teaching, Buddhist doctrines, as well as for providing refuge to Buddhist scholars, who had to flee the onslaught of Sena rulers of Bengal and Karnataka Kshatriyas of Bihar, as also the hostile group and warlords of 11th Century Tibet. Eminent Buddhist teachers from Tibet visited Nepal during this period. Dipankara who came here in the 11th century was responsible for introducing his mystic and esoteric cult’ “Kala Chakra Yana” which found Favor in Nepal. Tibetan Buddhist came to Nepal and translated many important Buddhist manuscripts written in Sanskrit, conversely, the Nepalese translated important sect scriptures which were written in Tibetans and simultaneously copied many Sanskrit manuscripts such as the Guhya Samaja Tantra and Chakra Samvara being the most well-known ones. Though a hush falls into the Kathmandu valley due to lack of historical evidence, after the 8th century, we find a large number of manuscripts, colophons and thousands of copies of manuscripts of Buddhist religious texts, which attest to the literary climate of this period. The art of paper making (which came to Nepal from China) and the composition of dyes development to a great extent during this period. Writings in ornate scripts seems have been dictated by the increasing demands of patrons, within and outside. Though illuminated Buddhist manuscripts are to be found in abundance, illuminated Brahmanical manuscripts of this period survived only in Nepal. Such a trend in writing and the spread of Vajrayana and Tantra in lesser centers led to encouragement I writing even in local dialects, free from orthodox convention. In a society fragmented by division of political authority and growth of localism, the dialects were many. What is today knows as Newari script or language (though the word “Newar” first appeared only in 1654 AD), must have hesitantly joined the written scripts of the time. The first use of Nepal Bhasa in an inscription is dated Nepal Samvata 293 (1173 AD), but more regular use of Nepal Bhasa and Newari Script is to be witnessed only in early 14th century. Despite the anarchic political milieu the increasing demands of patrons following various sects and practices fostered cultural activities. New Tantric divinities were increasingly introduced into the Nepalese vihara, Bahala and domestic chapels of laity. New gods did not replace older Buddhas and Bodisattvas, but the new ones stood side by side where the old existed. The arrival of innumerable new deities with complicated forms and combinations together with the demand for them as cult objects stimulated metallurgical skill and enhanced production. Bronze casts, goldsmiths, stone sculptors and wood carvers whose skills were rooted in the Licchavi art got ample stimulus. Art objects left the ateliers in a never ending stream. Architecture continued to flourish with the proliferation of new local patrons. In stone sculpture, the emphasis on volume admirably presented during the early period, gave way to linear idiom and evidenced the beginning of decline. But the Nepalese artists distinguished themselves in the field of Buddhist iconography. A high order of sophistication has been reflected in elaborate panels of temple decoration. In spite of intimate ties between the Palas and Nepal Mandala, the art of the valley is so typically Nepalese, that except for some resemblance in the attire as depicted in pictures and sculptures, Pala influences was minimal. The richness of Nepalese art of this transitional period and its great demand outside the country can be judged by the invitation extended to a delegation of artists in 1261 AD from Nepal by the Chinese Emperor Kublai Khan. The artistic excellence of this team led by the young master Arniko, can still be seen in some of the existing buildings, including the Potala Palace of the Dalai Lama Golden Shrine in Tibet and the White Padoga in Beijing. During these obscure centuries, the throne was divided and constant tussles between legitimate claim ants continued. Since the end of the 10th century, Nepal suffered the brunt of invasions, pillage and massacres from within and without. At this juncture it is necessary to make some general references to the cultural scenario of the areas outside Kathmandu valley which forms part of the present day Nepal to the south of the valley in the Mithala region, which witnessed upheavals during the long period between the Maurya rulers of India in pre-Christian era to the rise of senas in the 11th centaury, an incident of utmost importance took place. In 1097 AD Nanya Deva of Karnataka (South India) established his sovereignty in the region, with Simaraon Garh as his capital, situated at the foothill south of the Kathmandu valley. Though for some movement of the Buddhist from the valley, it seems in suchcessive years, the Maithilis too tired to penetrate into the valley. Till the end of the 13th century, there were no devastating raids from the Mailthili Karnataka. But now people with different cultural experiences had settled near the valley and had also occupied adjacent areas. Simraon Garth their political head quarter was veritable museum of Karnataka art. Though the art works and even decorative structures had invited Nepalese traits of influences they in turn influenced Nepalese sculpture and art in subtle and implicit terms in successive years and ultimately merged into the culture of the valley. the regions east of Nepala Mandala were all occupied by the Kirants, who formed tribal groups and ruled their respective pockets in the hills as well as the plains below, which were thickly covered with forests. Though shift cultivation and hunting was their main occupations, they also sought employment beyond Nepal. Therefore, they were not free from the cultural influences of religious prevailing outside their domain. Shaivites, as well as Buddhist religious ideas and practices were carried to these remote areas, mainly due to the efforts of wandering Siddhas and Nathapaties who presented religion in simple form, through songs and chanting. The condition in Western Nepal was different from that of the east. Even in 500 AD a tribe called Khassa had penetrated into western Nepal. They had established their kingdom, with their capital at Sinja, in the present day district of Jumla, at the foot of the imposing Muktinath Mountain. Professor Tucci and Dr. Himendroff have provided ample linguistic proof that the Khasas inhabitated the Karnali basin at the end of the 5th century. Towards the end of he 12th century, the Khaas emerged as a powerful tribe, whose kings bore the lofty name of the Mallas though we come across the mention of Mallapuri in western Nepal, due to lack of conclusive evidence we can not say what the Khasas of Karnali region were doing before the 12th century. However to wards the end of the 12 century, the khasa dynasty had extend their influence in Kumaon and Garhwal to the west, south western-Tibet to the north and parts of western Nepal, even Ladakh according to some historians. The fertile valleys of Jumla and the adjoining winter resort of Dullu must have given them surplus agricultural produce. They took good care of the trade routes with Tibet as well as India. The Khasa kings and traders visited as far as Gaya (in Bihar province in India). Jumla, Sinja and Dullu were centers of a cultural crossroad in medieval Nepal. Influences of animistic worship, the masta cult, Natha sect (Bhairvanath and Chandannath temples of later years and the stele around them) and Buddhist stupas found scattered along the route clearly show that the Khasa rulers were liberal towards all religions. Their eagerness in visiting distant Boddha Gaya and entering the Kathmandu valley to visit religious centers like Pashupati, Matsyndra Nath and Swayambhu clearly shows their secularism and devotion to all religions. The large number of icons and sculptures, which they carried from Nepal to Dullu when they raided the valley show their secularism and devotion to all religions. The large number of icons and sculptures, which they carried from Nepal to Dullu when they raided the valley, show their quest for culture. Though from the 15th centuray onwards the Khasa empire disintegrated into numerous tiny kingdoms, the language of the Khasa which must have developed from the dialect of a tribe into the language of an extensive kingdom, was to provide a lease to the expanding Gurkhas kingdom and ultimately to the modern Nepali language, which took the coveted place of the national language. Did the Khasa rulers, who called themselves Malla, have some lineage with the Mallas of Kushinagar, in eastern India, during the 6th century BC or later? How it is their surname coincides with the Mallas, who stated ruling the Kathmandu valley since 1200 AD? These are some questions which still remain unanswered. However since 1200 AD rulers with ‘Malla’ as their surname stared ruling in Kathmandu Mandala, though some rulers still used the surname of ‘Deva’ used by the Licchavi rulers. It appears that gradually under a succession of weak kings and in a more permissive and incoherent socio-cultural society the powerful nobility undermined the position of hereditary rulers and claimed the throne with the support of the ruling class and affixed the hereditary or assumed surname “Malla”. Even under these early Malla kings, confusion prevailed in the valley, fostered by weak central rule and the increasingly permissive society. Religion, which was fountainhead of culture, started degenerating into vague and varying rituals-exploitative, immoral, erotic and obscene. The days of great teachers, scholars, philosophers and gurus come to an end. Priesthood or religious institutions passed into the hands of charlatans and turned into a joint product of the simplicity of the fools and duplicity of the first knaves. When such was the socio-cultural scenario at the end of the 13th century, calamities and devastations swept the valley. Since the 11th century, northern India was already witnessing raids by Muslim aggressors. It seems some people belonging to the ruling classes in India fled and settled in the hills of Nepal. When the Muslim raiders swept into the eastern provinces if India, specially Magadha (the ancient center of Buddhism) and Bengal, ruled by Sena rulers, they did not meet much resistance. Religions that had degenerated into mere superstitions and opulent immorality had sapped the strength as well as will of the rulers to enable them to face the ferocious invaders. Devastation and plunder become the order of the day, and in the prevailing confusion, the Buddhist intellectuals of renowned universities like Nalanda and Vikramashila fled with whatever manuscripts they could carry. A large number of them sought shelter in Kathmandu valley in numerous monasteries, religious centers (like Swayambhu and Bodhanatha), viharas and houses of Nepalese scholars. But then, the valley it’s self, where cultural standards were slowly deteriorating had to face calamities in succession. In 1255 AD of a devastating earthquake shook the valley. it is said, about 1/3 of the population perished. From this we can imagine its effects on the monuments, temples and subsequently the cultural life of the people. This devastation was followed by famine, which drained the cultural wealth of the prosperous land. When the valley had not yet recovered from the shock, tha Khassa of western Nepal, invaded the valley in 1287 AD and took away with them wealth, sculptures and artifacts to their winter capital, Dullu. It was soon followed by the first invasion of the Karnataka Kashtriyas who targeted the city of Bhaktapur (which was abandoned by the Khasas) and they rushed back with the booty to their summer capital, Simaraon Garh. In 1313 AD the Khasas came to the valley, specially to worship the Bungmati Lokeswara Pashupati, Machyendra Nath and Swayambhu Buddha, the people not only from the hills of Nepal but also from the plains of India and Tibet beyond the Himalayas came flocking to these religious centers. But, then the Khasas dd not go without their share enterd the valley wth force, but as luck would have it, the Muslim conqueror of Bengal Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq dislodged Harasimha Deva, the Karnataka ruler from this territory. Subesquently, the Karnatakas fled into Nepal, moving upto Dolakha to the east of the valley. To what degree did these refugee influenced the art and culture of the valley is not known. But we do know that the Karnataka ruler brought his ancestral deity Taleju and installed it at Bhaktapur. The Taleju was subsequently the personal diety of the Mallas. In 1328 AD Adittya Malla, the Khasa ruler, entered the valley, and after a few days retreated to his kingdom. His invasion added more confusion to the exiting chaos in the valley, which was now tired, timid and leaderless. Though the natural mountain barriers inslulated the valley from the political changes, as a result of the occupation of India by the Muslim, Kathmandu too, had the taste of the onslaught of the iconoclasts. In 1346 AD the Muslim general Illyas Shah entered the valley and devastated temples and monasteries, breaking the image of Pashupati into three pieces and burning viharas and stupas including the stupa of Swayambhu Buddha and the famous Pimtha vihara of Patan. The perishablity of wooden temples of Nepal and the delicated metallic structures and icons succumbed easily to the zeal of the devastating raiders, who rampaged the valley for a week. Every trial has its compensation. If the continuous raids and devastations in the Kathmandu