Download Nepal - Jagadish Rana

NEPAL
A concise History of the
Cultural Scenario of the Himalayan Kingdom
Preface
'To put Nepal's culture in a nutshell' was the primary aim while writing this book. My
talented cousin brother Pasupati Shamshere J. B. Rana, (M.P.) wanted me to write a
chapter on Nepal's culture for a book Nepal which he wanted to compile. When I gladly
agreed and started this seemingly easy work I realized how implacable a task it was.
Nepal is one of the smallest countries in the world. But, as it lies between the two large
subcontinents, having cultures dating back to the third millennium before Christ or
beyond and as it has turned polychromatic and complex. This small country,
approximately 500miles in length lying at the lap of Himalayas, the highest mountains in
the world dividing the Chinese and Indian subcontinents, has been crossed by numerous
people of different races and ethnic origin; people carrying trade and commerce, men of
arts and letters, religious leaders and preaches, as well as humble grazers and bold
adventurers. Therefore cultures from both these northern and southern neighbors flowed
into this little and remote country. Kathmandu Mandala or the Central Valley which
always remained the epicenter of Nepal, infact became a melting pot for all cultural
influences to smelt together and metamorphose, giving a distinct Nepali shape to all
forms, ideas and sounds imbibed from al sides.
Likewise, the history and culture of Nepal is to a great extent a history of migration of
people from outside the country into this land, of people of the country itself migrating
from one part to other and also of people moving out of the country to solve their
problem of mass poverty. This, coupled with the rugged geographical nature of the
country and climate, ranging from the cold snowy mountains in the north to the warm
tropical belt in the south kept migrating to an acceptable level. Thus for many centuries,
there was inside the country, an ideal situation for various ethnic groups to foster. To
squeeze the account of the culture of a country, with a long history of cultural changes
and of people living in multiethnic and multilingual groups, into a few pages became
almost impossible for me.
The present book, has not been able to do full justice in recording a complete history and
culture of Nepal. But then from the incept my aim was to write a concise account of the
culture of Nepal, which would help readers to get an overall view of its cultural scenario,
within a reasonably short time. So the result has been, a book on Nepal, placed between
the scholarly works and sloppy writing on this subject close to my heart. As a student of
history, I know the limitations, even pitfalls in producing such a work, where both
painstaking research and scrutinized authenticity would be lacking. I can almost foretell
the controversies that the ideas expressed or conjectures made in this book may raise. But
I am sure, to those who want to get a concise coordinated view on the fairly long and
varied cultural scenario of this small and interesting country, this book would provide
enough that one can gather by reading a small book on a wide subject. To such common
readers and lovers of culture, I dedicate this book.
My thanks are due to my dear brother Pashupati Rana who inspired me to write on this
subject, to my daughter-in-law Dolly Rana who corrected and typed the entire script; to
my dear daughter Kavita Singh who painstakingly recasted the structure of language of
this work, thanks are due to my friend RD Sharma Yuyutsu, and Nirala Publications for
publishing this book and to my son Amar Rana for setting the script and casting the
format.
Jagadish Rana
In December 1991, a small orchestral group from Germany visited Kathmandu valley in
Nepal, to play the music of Mozart in commemoration of the bicentenary of the great
Austrian master. When they visited the ancient town of Bhaktapur, they were
ceremoniously taken along the traditional festival route of the town by one of the most
proficient groups or drummers who have been perpetuating the ancient music of the
valley through verbal tradition. Both the groups of musicians stood on the steps of
Natapola (the five storied pagoda) from where they played alternately to the sheer delight
of the rapturous audience- the guests from Europe and the local inhabitants of this ancient
temple-town. Such cultural exchanges and the desire to project the uniqueness of one's
culture is the foundation-stone of the spirit and essence of the cultural scenario we are
witnessing today. Though Nepal is a small, remote and under-developed country
according to today's standards, nevertheless, it is a vast store-house of art and culture.it is
no exception to this end-of-the 20th century-phenomena.
The unprecedented developed of audio-visual technology has affected the attitudes and
enthusiasm of people, even in the remotest corners of the world. It has contributed, in no
small measure to "the taste for the exotic". Besides, it has brought with it awareness,
pride and renewed interest in one's cultural heritage. Recently the French Cultural Centre
in Nepal, sponsored a public performance of one of the most exotic Tantric dances, the
Bhairava. It was novel experience for the troupe of dancers, whose tradition is traced
back to the 17th century. They had never before performed on stage in tandem with
modern acoustics. In recent years, foreign scholars, historians, sociologists and men of
arts have turned their attention to this exotic culture. Recording in the letters as well as
films of the very primitive culture, The Honey- Hunters of Nepal became a readers'
favorite book as well as a successful telecast. With fast paced globalization engulfing the
life of the Nepalese, they are more tenaciously clinging on to the deeper values of their
religion, language, art and literature. They have realised that the taste for the exotic is an
international phenomenon and has increased the opportunity for the trade of international
crafts. Today cities, towns and villages, even in far-flung areas have shops selling quaint
artfacts, ranging from stones and beads of every hue and texture to exquisite objects d'
art. Most of them are imitations of original paintings, scriptures, lacquered boxes and
bric-a-brac. Given the vast number of ethnic groups that existed and still do, the range of
crafts is mind-boggling, especially to the foreigners who are the products of an assemblyline culture, which produces hundreds of imitations within a matter of minutes.
As the world is getting smaller with better communication systems, the osmosis of ideas
is greater, as a result of which the Nepalese are increasingly treasuring their cultural
heritage, the uniqueness of which, sets them apart from the rest of the world. This has
given emergence to a conscious nationalism, the off-shoots of which is flowering in the
form of cultural awareness. It is little wonder that this has been reflected in the new
democratic constitution of Nepal where a special place has been given to the conservation
and development of ethnic languages and culture.
A new fervor of cultural identity, awareness and common for one's local and national
culture has swept the length and breadth of this Himalayan kingdom. The numerous
ethnic groups, some large and some small, each with their unique tradition and culture,
ranging from the very primitive to the highly developed ones, still co-exists in the
country. It is interesting to observe this cotemporary cultural euphoria before we go into
the history and development of Nepalese culture.
In the remotest part of western Nepal lies the vast expanse of the mountainous region of
Karnali. The landscape here comes alive with rocks and stones chiseled by men, dotting
the scenario. A few shrines dating back to the first century A.D. remain. There also exist
groups of stupas and forgotten caves (Bhotegumbas) of Tibetan origin and numerous
manuscripts in the state of neglect and decay. In the last decade, the local inhabitants and
the archaeological department have focused their attention on these relics. The dream of
discovering unknown civilization in Sinja and other places is becoming a reality.
Libraries of old texts are being organized. Painting of Thankaa (banner and wall paintings
for gumbas or monasteries) are being carried out seriously. The local cultural heads are
eager to prove the existence of a distinctive Karnali culture.
Similarly, in far eastern parts of Nepal, to the east of River Arun (called Limbhwan) the
Limbus claim that their sovereignty once spread right upto Kathmandu and they
established the Kirati dynasty before the Christian Era. They are now reconstructing the
old Kirati script, developing the Limbu dialect and are establishing claim to a Limbhu
culture. To region called Khumbuwan ( a derivation from the Khumbu glacial region) is
predominated by the Rais who are divided in to more than eighteen sub-sects.
Sandwiched between the Sherpas in the northwest, the Chhetries and the Hindu
Brahamins in the south, the Rais are deeply influenced by the religion and culture of
these three groups, and have ultimately evolved a pot-pourri of cultures distinctively their
own. Yet they are now looking back into past traditional history in an attempt to link it to
the present and thus establish the existence of a Rai culture.
Likewise, the ethnic tribes like the Gurungs, Magars, Tamangs and Tharus are those
among the many who are caught up in the vortex of the recent cultural awareness wave
and are trying to assert that they have a distinct culture with their own tribal history. In
fact, most tribal groups lived in multiethnic societies. A typical example is the area along
the Mahabharata Ranges. One of the regions is inhabited by the Chepang and Dhimal
tribes along the rivers Rapti and Narayeni. Even today they hunt birds and small game
with bows and arrows and practice shift cultivation, growing "Chiuri" trees which are a
source of both fruits and seed-oil. The region below the banks of the two rivers is
occupied by the Danuwar and Majhi tribes, who have depended on fishing and small
farming since generations. In this region, we also find the larger Tharu tribes, who have
been waging a battle for survival between man and forest. They have been cultivating
patches of land amidst grasslands and dense saal forests. This tribe is more developed
culture. Today, the Tharus are vehemently claiming a distinct language, dance, music,
rituals and social customs of their own. Sociologists and anthropologists have written
extensively about this tribe.
It is rather interesting to note that Kapilavastu (the birth place of Gautama The Buddha
situated in the western Terai region of Nepal) and Mithila ( the well-planned city of the
legendary king Janak), are both developing into religious centers. Extensive
archaeological excavation are in progress in Kapilavastu, besides the construction of new
buildings for pilgrims who are pouring in large numbers from eastern Asia. At Janakpur,
the famous Janaki temple has become an important itinerary for Hindu pilgrims. It has
also provided impetus for the revival of the Maithali culture, which today claims a second
place after the national language of Nepal.
At the center of these cultural activities lies Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal. The valley
called Kathmandu Mandala, has always remained central to the history of Nepal.
Whether it is the distant Kingdom of Sinja in the remote Karnali region or the Kirants,
they all claimed to have conquered this central city at one time or another. Like Rome of
ancient times, all roads of Nepal lead to Kathmandu. In this small valley of
approximately with an area of 218 Sq. miles, there are more than 50,000 exquisitely
constructed and artistically decorated temples, shrines and with millions of icons. Today,
Kathmandu is witnessing the clamor of different tribes and clans of Nepal, seeking
maximum attention and patronage for their respective cultures from the Government of
Nepal. It is in this store-house of culture that numerous art-thefts have been carried out by
organized gangs vying to make big money from illegal trades. It is here indeed that
within a few decades the number of foreign tourists who increased several folds. It is in
the streets and by-lanes of this prosperous valley hat apart from listening to strains of
traditional music and witnessing some superbly rendered traditional dances and ritualistic
processions, one comes across rows of dainty shops dealing with antiques and quaint
souvenirs symbolizing the cultural heritage of Nepal.
This rich cultural heritage if Kathmandu valley; the rising consciousness and
concern for traditional culture among the townies and country folk of the mountainous
regions, the various ethnic groups scattered all over the country and the quest of ethnic
and cultural groups to be recognized as a distinct entity of the national culture, is a
phenomena which is deeply embedded in the history of the cultural development of
Nepal. Some conjectures on what might have transpired since the dawn of history o this
land, would help in understanding the factors which shaped our early culture as it passed
through the stages of development. In the absence of concrete and authentic evidence, we
can trace cultural history of Nepal only from the third century A.D.
Even as the stout race of this rough and rugged land came out of primordial slime,
to a great extent its cultural development was determined by the strong geographical
forces. The extreme topographical and climatic conditions of these areas become a
controlling factor, keeping the influx of invaders and immigrants at an average keel.
Earlier the ratio between man and forest was vastly different from what now exists. Each
tribe was restricted to their region by the natural barriers of mountains, rivers and forests.
The climate ranged from the snow-capped Himalayan ranges down to the hot tropical
forest in the narrow corridor of land. It created races and tribes with varying cultural
habits, customs, and the development of multicultural and tribal races. Therefore, even
today, the Nepalese society is predomainly tribal based, though the Brahmanism caste
system has juxtaposed over the tribal pattern. This system was brought in by the
immigrants who have been feeling the onslaught of invaders after having traversed the
plains of Hindustan.
Nepal is approximately 800 kms in length 170 kms in breadth and lies between
the two most populated countries of the world, China to the north and India to the south.
Over the years, the Tibetans from the north and the Indians from the south, east and west
made inroads into this mountainous land, bringing with them their cultural mores. When
the people of different cultures are thrown together, conflict arise. Creating order out of
chaos being a human instinct, each contributes and adopts the habits, beliefs and cultural
patterns of the other to some extent thus creating a culture which has a distinct
individualistic flavor.
In the beginning, the main occupation of these tribes was hunting and living entirely on
the abundant bounty of nature’s forests and river produce. In fact, even today tribes such
as the Dhimals, Danuwars, Lepchas and Chepangs follow this practice. Subsequently, it
was substituted by agriculture, in particular, shift cultivation which was most widely
practiced besides the rearing of cattle for milk, meat, wool and hide. In the cold subHimalayan region, the yak was imperative for survival. In summers the cattle was
imperative for survival. In summer the cattle was brought into the Himalayan pastures for
grazing and in winters moved down to the narrow, warmer valley just below the
mountains or even to the Tibetan plateau on the other side of the Himalayas. Therefore,
there was great similarity in the customs and habits of the people in the northern borders
of Tibet, thought the Tibetans led a more nomadic life. In the Terai (the southern part of
Nepal bordering India), the situation was different. The inhabitants of this region had to
wage an incessant and often frustrating struggle against the forest. As soon as a patch of
land was cleared of trees for cultivation the forest encroached into this land. Adding to
this, a dreadful disease called Aul (a virulent type of malaria) forced the settlers to retreat.
The Tharus, Danuwaras, and Majhees who ventured to live in this area, struggled hard
against nature. They developed their own social systems and remained aloof from those
outside their own clan. Therefore the culture, habits and ethnic customs remained
untouched by the Brahmanic cult for a long time, even though their realm formed part of
the states and principalities that were formed early in the history of the surrounding areas.
In the region between the sub-Himalayan strip and the Terai, there are a large
number of tribal groups. Starting from the east there are the Limbus, Rais, Tamangs,
Gurungs, Magars and Thakuries. Though some historians and anthropologists slot them
into a broad category of Mangoloid and Aryan races, the social and cultural development
of these tribes warrants a more careful study.
The tribal culture of the innumerable tribes of Nepal is integral in tracing the
cultural development of the country through the centuries to its present day. The
Ramayana gives vivid descriptions of Maithali, the well-planned city of King Janak,
situated in the eastern Terai. The treatise of Yagnayabalka (the law gives of ancient
times) in his Yagnayabalka Samhita, even today provides guidelines for Hindu social
mores and customs and is ample proof of the highly advanced society of that period. As
per the ancient philosophers and Rishis (men of wisdom and knowledge) we have
evidence in scriptures and their legal or philosophical treatises. However, more
documentary evidence is available of events after the 6th century. BC. During this period,
16 states, some governed by hereditary rulers and some by republican laws, sprang up in
northern India, alone the Indo-Gangetic plains. Those alone the Terai included parts of
Nepal and India. Among them the Sakya republic, with its capital at Kapilvastu in
western Nepal and Magadha, with its capital at Patna in India, extended far into the
foothills of Nepal. By this time, the Aryans had formed their own settlements, set-up their
social and administrative systems based on Vedic or Brahmanical principals and were
engaged in activities generating wealth. Trade and commerce flourished, well-planned
cities were built, art and culture received impetus. The Terai region of Nepal with
neighboring Kapilavastu and Mithila were within this cultural perimeter.
Beyond this region dwelt the Kiranta tribe. Though very little is know about their
nascent history, we find some references which actually connotes the tribes and races
inhabiting the border of the civilized country. Though much has been written about their
culture by some writers, in my humble opinion, the Kirantas were primarily a wandering
tribe who lived by hunting with bows and arrows and traded woolen shawls.
How did the flow of Brahmanic Hindu culture affect the Culture of the Kirants?
How did the traditional tribal culture merge? How did the effervescent Brahmanic culture
metamorphose? To what degree did the new culture set a pattern for the future culture
development in Nepal? Answers in these will remain mere speculation till authentic
evidence is dug out from the debris of the past. Nevertheless, historical evidence of early
Licchavi culture asserts that the advance culture art and served in various stella and
sculptures cannot be historically disconnected. The continuum of such cultural
development must necessarily have a long history. Lack of tangibl evidence and facilities
for delving deep into such a distant past should not lead us to believe that the wonderful
Licchavi culture simply bloomed and withered away like seasonal flowers. Fro the
metamorphosis of different cultures in this wonderful melting pot of culture, namely,
Kathmandu Mandala, we are able to make a sound tribal structure to a more urban and
urban culture in later years, as we shall now see.
That the Katmhandu valley was at one time a huge lake is an accepted fact, but when
exactly the water drained out, leaving a huge valley, fertile in soil, rich in forest and aqua
reserves, with plenty of water, Buddhists, Tantriks and Nathapatis claim that it was their
respective lords, who, by a miraculous strock cut a gorge and drained the valley of its
aquatic pressure. Soon after, the valley becomes habitable. Grezers and tribes from
neighboring areas flocked into this fertile land. The hunting, wandering tribe of Kirantas
seems to have occupied this valley and kept it under their tribal possession. Primary
sources of Nepal’s history provide impressive genealogies of Kiranta kings. It is possible
that they wrested the valley from the pastoral dynasties. The pastoral culture of the valley
seems to have been superseded by the tribal culture of the Kirantas, who claimed to have
covered mountainous areas to the east, north and even some wester regions of the valley.
In some pasts of the country they had come together under powerful leaders and were
subjugating land as far as they could with humble means at their disposal. That the
Kiranta tribe was an organized group of people with definitive social and administrative
systems, having vast areas of the country under their sovereignty, is a much doubted
probability. In fact, there is no concrete evidence to support this claim. Though not much
is know about the nature of kingship and kinship relation during this period, it can be
reasonably presumed that the Kirantas had a number of tribal chiefs, some warring
amongst themselves and others bound by kinship and convenient alliance. Their religion
appears to have been animistic. The head of the clan was highly respected and even took
the form of an imaginary deity, whom they worshipped as benefactor and protector of the
clan (the fore-runner of the later Buda Subba or Masta deity). The Kirantas possessed
rudimentary knowledge of fort architecture and were engaged in the aesthetics of making
bead ad stone necklace. Though their major occupation was hunting, fishing, fighting and
extend their areas of suzerainty, farming and trade was also practiced. This supported
their activities concerning warfare, fortification and the protection of their realm. Such
activities obviously demanded a language more elaborate than rural dialects. Subsequently, Kirantai scripts were developed. But it would be rather far fetched to say, that
the language, literature and script were all developed at an early stage when the tribes
were not yet consolidate. The non-Sanskrit names and words used in the chronicled by
the Licchavis who superseded the Kiranta rulers of the valley is inadequate proof that the
Kiranti language was developed during the early centuries of the Christian Era, nor is the
mention of Kiranti sounding names of persons and places in the valley enough to prove
that the Kirantas had developed literature and arts at that time. Of this was so, when the
Kiranta overlords were driven out of the valley to mountainous realms, they would have
carried this knowledge with them and bettered it there.
Recent discoveries of pieces of stone axes and caves, probably belonging to the
Paleolithic age in the sub-Himalayan regions along the Darchula-Manang belt have
provided enough food for thought to anthropolpgists to venture into the antiquity of the
cultural history of this mountainous kingdom.
We cannot ignore the continuum of cultural development of the 6th century BC,
the ear of Gautam budha. It is a watershed period of the history of the sub-continent, so
richlt described in the scriptures, epics, dharma-shastra (legal treatise), legends and folklores. The Brahmanic society and culture which dates back to the Vedic period must have
had some influence upon the momadic tribe inhabiting te border lands of the civilized
plains of Bharat varsha, the Himalayan recluse where the sages of ancient times sought
penance and contemplation, the planned cities at the foot-hills of Nepal and places like
Kapilavastu (where the protest againt complicated rituals and high – browed philosophies
and agonizing caste system was brewing and a stage was being set for more popular
beliefs), were in the mid-stream of cultural fermentation of the sub-continent.
The supersession of the Kirantas by the Licchavis was not a swift and sudden
event. The rulers of Vaishali, who were famous even at the time of Buddha, seem to have
been impelled by circumstance to establish a new state in the Himalayas in the early
centuries of the Christian ear. Though there is mention of the Licchavis defeating a
Kiranta king, is to be found of them invading the valley, the predominance of the Kiranta
stock in the valley, the juxtaposition and surely not replacement of the foundation of the
tribal culture by the infiltrators from India and the adoption of a monarchial regime by
the Licchhavis, who were well-known republicans of the sixteen states of early India,
leads us to believe that a cultural metamorphosis of sorts took place in the valley. the
conquerors assimilated some practices and some words of the conquered race, enforced a
feudal system and institutationalized religion among the people of the valley. Even before
Ashoka’s missionary zeal sent Buddhist missionaries to this affluent valley, Indianization
of the ingenious tribal culture had begun. Some off-shoots of the Licchavis had already
proceeded the Buddhist missionaries. The area around Pashupati, the predominant deity
of the valley, was already marked. Some idols which were already being worshipped,
such as Shiva, in the form of Kiranta, had already set a pattern for the future when
Pashupati itself was to be worshipped by Buddhiss as Avalokiteswara. The influence of
Kushana (Mathura school) art in early sculptures and terracotta images, the existence of
Hindu monarch, much before the Buddhist missionaries of Ashoka visited the valley and
erected Buddhist stupas and established Buddhist viharas adjacent to the Pashupati
Temple are evidence of early Brahmanic culture prevailing in the valley.
Therefore when we arrive at the beginning of the historical period of the Licchavis
derived by calculating the average rule of the predecessors of the king, Mana Deva,
whose pillar inscription at Changu Narayan Temple is regatded as the first written and
recorded chronicle, which is assumed to be 300 AD, the Kathmandu valley was already
ruled by rulers who had not only established feudal patterns, but also brought in Aryan or
Barhmanic tradition, the Sanskrit language and also artistic forms from India. Hinduism
and Buddhism was practiced aide by side and they had considerable influence on the
culture of this valley. The co-existence and intermingling of these two religions can be
best illustrated by the fact the while King Mana Deva was a devout Hindu who
patronized Buddhist centers, his great – grand father Vrsadeva, was a devout Buddhist
who laid the foundation of Svayambhu Stupa, the most important Buddhist Monument of
Nepal.
The Licchavi chronicle sapns almost six centuries from 300 AD to 879 Ad. Many
winds of change blew during this era. Due to lack of evidence the dawn of this period can
be fathomed only be imagination. But we know that the Licchavis who were concentrated
around Vaishali in India, slowly penetrated the valley which was then fifth century, the
Licchavi rulers subdued the Kirantas in the east (whom they called Satha and Scoundrels)
and the Tibetans in the north. They rose in eminence and consolidated their position.
During the 6th and 7th century, there were weak kings with powerful Samantas
(noblemen) who wielded the power in actual practice. Prominent examples are the Ahira
Guptas and Samanta Amsuverma of the late 5th and early 6th century, there were weak
kings with powerful king, Narendra Deva, restored authority and power of the rulers in
their own domain. From the middle of the 8th century, the list of Liccahavi rulers of
eminence draws to a close. But the smelting of diverse religions and cultural practices in
Nepal mandala produced a cultural metamorphosis of such a dimension that it
necessitated the naming of a new Era-the Nepal Samvata in 879 AD, which marks the
end of the Licchavi period. To put down the culture of such a long and eventful period in
a few paragraphs is an impossible task. However, the Licchavis left such a profound and
everlasting mark in the cultural development of Nepal, that it would not be wrong to call
it the most important period of Nepal’s cultural history.
Two major factors are responsible for the prolific development of culture during
the Licchavi period. Firstly, the Licchavi rulers were not only tolerant to all ideas,
religions and thoughts but also patronized all works of art and culture between India on
the one side, and Tibet and China on the other, and developed the Kathmandu valley as
an important Centerport. This uncensored traffic of ideas and flow of trade contributed
intellectually as well as economically to the development of culture during this period,
another factor that shaped and contributed to the promotion and development of culture
in Kathmandu Mandala was agriculture. The valley was one of the first regions in the
Himalayan Mountains where settled cultivation had replaced the practice of shift
cultivation. As along the strips of land along the river Nile I ancient Egypt, it was in the
narrow fields of this fertile valley that geometrical system of farming was practiced. This
equipped the inhabitants of the valley with a first hand knowledge of geometry, which is
reflected in the temple architecture as well as in the econometric of the icons and
sculptures of Nepal. Moreover, abundant crops in the valley gave the artisans ample
resources and leisure time to indulge in arts and festivities. Besides, their feudal masters
were wealthy enough to support arts and crafts.
By the beginning of 5th century, the Licchavis who belonged to a republican state
in India had established an absolute monarchy in the valley. the state was however
skillfully administered according to rigorously established laws, contrary to those based
on tradition and used in the tribal administration before the advent of the Licchavis.
Institution was set up to regulate and govern the liaison between the rulers and the ruled.
Religious congregations as well as Panchalikas (local units) enjoyed auto money. Benefit
public-work was carried out by the state which also levied taxes. Land tenure was
regulated, which was predecessor of the land system that followed later. Agriculture
flourished and trade and economy was at its best.
Though the Licchavis did not introduce Hinduism and Buddhism in the valley,
nevertheless, their presence nurtured the seeds of these religions through the
intermingling of traders, monks and mendicants who moved freely during this period.
Along side, these major religions and their pantheons, local gods, mother – goddesses,
grandmother – goddesses, and demi – gods originating from local culture were also
worshipped. A notable example is the Bunga Deo, which remained a village god till it
was transferred into Lord Matsendra Nath, by the Hindus and Avalokiteswara and
Karunamaya by the Buddhists of different sects much later. Therefore, it is not a matter
of coincidence, that the palace of the licchavi King Mana Deva (464-505 AD) named
Mana Griha, from where the Licchavi rulers ruled till the middle of the seventh century
and the palace of Samanta Amshuverma (605-621 AD) so elaborately described and
gloriously praised of their size and architectural beauty were built during the early
Licchavi period. Similar factors were responsible for development of three important
religious places and accompanying architeures and sculptures, namely, the main
Pashupati Temple and other temples and icons within the periphery of this abode of
Loard Shiva (which claims remote origin), the Svayambhunath Stupa (425 AD approx.),
the matchless icons of the Hindu god Vishnu and his companion, Changu Narayan (Muna
Deva – 464 0 505 AD), which are to this day regarded as the most important religious
pilgrimages for the Hindus and Buddhists of the valley, all belongs to the early Licchavi
period.
The Licchavis were great patrons of arts. There were rulers like Amshuverma,
whose praises were sung by Chinese pilgrims many years after their death. He is credited
to give read the shastras day and night, written treaties on rhetoric, introduced Sanskrit
grammar, formed and documented judicial regulations, made bountiful donations to all
gods of the Nepali pantheon. Chinese chroniclers and Nepalese genealogies have given
elaborate descriptions of the excellence of Licchavi architecture and most of the temples
are from that period, but they are end – products of a long succession of repairs and
modifications. Many temples in Nepal, built in later times were built on the Licchavi
sculptures. Here, it will be relevant to mention at least two among 45 pieces of recorded
Licchavi sculptures. The icon of Buddha Nilakanth, in north Kathmandu valley, is a 27
feet long massive sculpture, which was commissioned by King Vishnu Gupta in 641 AD.
It is apparently the icon Vishnu lying on the bed formed by the coiled serpent, Naga, in a
pool of water. Beneath it, is another in the same stone of equal size. The Nilakantha
Shiva is submerged in the water (the neck is marked blue with the venom he swallowed).
Though ignorant, unmindful and reckless authorities have, by wanton use of cement at
the bottom of the pond, obliterated the image of Shiva. An icon of this size and
magnificence, representing the unity of the Vaishnavite and Shaivite sets is the only one
of its kind in the world. The volume of the sculpture, the sure strocks of the sculptor’s
chisel, the serenity of expression, the almost impossible representation of the softness of
the beds of coiled snake, the smooth and polished upper layer of icon, is no ordinary feat,
which only the Licchavi sculptors could have achieved. The other image is of child-god
Krishna over – powering the maleficent serpent Kaliya. This image which was placed in
the Kathmandu Darbar by a Malla King is perhaps the most perfect Licchavi stone master
– piece. The volume is well-represented, as in all Licchavi sculptors, the deftness of the
sculptors’ strokes, the iconographic unity and the movement enshrined in the stone
masterpiece ought to be seen to be believed.
Apart from architecture and sculpture, the Licchavis were also given to danced
and music. Some of the rulers themselves were well versed in literature. Dramas in
Sanskrit were written and staged. The Chinese travelers described the blowing of
trumpets and beating of drums. This read together with the Lele Stele of 640 AD whivh
mentions Baja Guthi (trust land given for propagation of music) and the Dhimay Naubaja
ensemble leaves no doubt that the musical tradition which exists today was established
during the Licchavi period. Manuscripts have been found with choregraphic charts. This
establishes the theory that the art of dancing was encouraged during that period. For all
these reasons and the peace and prosperity that prevailed, the fifth, sixth and seventh
centuries are regarded as the finest period of Nepalese culture.
At the dawn of the 8th century, two significant historical events took place. In 704 AD the
Lacchavi king, Sivadeva II, freed Nepal from the Tibetan Yoke and encouraged free trade
with this northern neighbor. Secondly, the matrimonial alliance between Licchavis and
the Maukhari rulers of Kanauj not only enhanced the power of the Licchavis, but also
encouraged intermingling of people and trade with the southern neighbors. Though from
the 4th century AD the Chinese monks and scholars had started visiting India, specially
the universities of Nalanda and Vikramashila, with the emergence of Pala dynasty in
Bengal, Buddhism received ample patronage and Buddhist masters from Nalanda
Mahavira and other centers of Buddhist learning started moving northwards to perch their
religion. Indian Buddhism passed through this rich valley to Tibet. The religions climate
in Tibet was not at all conducive to these eminent Buddhist teachers, who went there in
the eight century one after the other. There was also an ideological clash between the Bon
religionist of Tibet and the Idealists of Indian Buddhism. All three eminent Buddhist
teachers, Shanti Rakshita, Padma Sambhava, Kamla Siddhi lived for some years in the
Kathmandu valley before they proceeded to Tibet respectively. In fact Buddhism also
adopted many rituals from other religions and sects particulary from ritually-rich
Hinduism. In this religious climate the masters from Nalanda devised religious system to
suit the requirements of the Tibetan people and dismissed the confusion about
Busddhism. Among the three, Padma Sambhaba (717 – b 775 AD) wanted to open a
Buddhist centre in Nepal where Tibetan Buddihst could be provided shelter and other
facilities to safeguard their faith and existence in time so emergency. According, in 745
AD Buddha Nath shrine was established. In this artistically prominent and impressive
center, dominating the scenario of the valley, Lamaism, a ritualistic branch of Buddhism
was devised. To this day, this sect is predominant among the Tibitan Buddhists and
bordering areas in northern Nepal.
When rituals and complex practices were containing the once simple and puritans
religion of Buddha, a new sect of preachers emerged from Pala’s Bengal ad entered
Nepal. They were the Siddha Chaaryas or the accomplished ones. Through their songs
called Charya Pada or Chacha (in Nepal) they sought to induce a socio-religious purge on
Brahmanic traditions and expose the hollowness of superstitions ad scholastic
speculations. Though the Sahajacharyas derived the inspirations from Mahayana
Buddhism, they conveyed the moral principals of religion in simple language and songs,
easily understood by the common man. The teachings of these accomplished Gurus with
their songs emphasizing simple moral and practical principals of religion Crosse all
barriers of caste and class. Since these preachers were not bound to any instauration, but
wandered far and wide, their examples were followed by many and thus, began the dawn
of a new era. These Siddha Charya not only added to the complicated patterns of diverse
religious practices of the valley but also penetrated into the interiors of Nepal, where
simple tribal people were attracted to their songs of divine virtues.
When such was the state of religious fermentation that was shaping the sociocultural climate of Nepal, Sankaracharya (788-820 AD) the preacher of monotheistic
Hindu religion came into the valley. a powerful exponent of Hindu religion philosophy,
he had successfully carried out an aggressive policy of conversion to the monotheistic
Hinduism in Nepal, which was an important factor between the creation of Buddhist
atmosphere under the missionary zeal of Ashoka’s emissaries and the establishment of
Nath Cult by Gorakh Nath. To initiate conversion, the followers of Sankaracharya first
extricated the Pashupati Nath temple from the Tantric and other degenerate sects A clever
compromise was set by allowing the Tantras to continue their practice in a limited way
and surrender the charge of the shrine as well as grant the authority of introducing
Shankaracharya’s system in and sound the temple. Thus established, Shamkara’s code of
religious practice was ringorously improvised. Firstly, among the Brahmanis (who were
following faltering rituals) and then among the converted followers of their sects. This
monotheism of Vedanta was nothing but imperialism in Indo-Nepalese religious
experiences supported by landlords and bourgeois views. Shankara’s Vendanta could not
dominate Nepalese life and Instauration which was restricted to India under the patronage
of feudal rulers. Nevertheless, Shankara’s advent was shot in-arm to Hindu religion,
which was faltering under the pressures of Buddhism, Tantrism and many local sects and
beliefs.
The influence of Shankara was so strongly felt by the Nepalese Buddhists during
the early decades of the 9th century, tat they stated compromising with several nonBuddhist cults. This led to the development of mythical Bodhisattvas in the Buddhist
pantheon of Nepal. Many artists adopted the model of Bodhisattvas as their favorite art in
designs of fulfill the demands of the Buddhists in Nepal and other countries beyond the
Himalayas. However, Buddhism suffered because of the predominance of neo-Buddhist
in its organizations, who did not hesitate to follow the Hindustic rituals and hereditary
caste structures.
When such was the state of affairs of religion and cultural in Nepal, Gorkhanath,
who dominated the socio-cultural scenario of Nepal in the second half of the 9th century,
made his mark. He brought a large number of dissidents from various sects into the folds
of his Yogamaya doctirine, expounded in simple couplets (dohas) and touching human
sentiments from religious devotion to mysticism and welfare in the present life and
deliverance in future. He revolutionized the frame of philosophy and religious life.
Though he failed to impart a mass appeal to the monotheism strengthened by
Sankaracharaya who preceded him, he and his Nath Panthis (following Nath doctrines)
were successful in affixing ‘Nath’ to many gods in Nepal including Pashupati. The old
and traditionally respected Bungadeo was given the name of his teacher, the mystic
Macchindra Nath and four important Nath centers were similarly named.
By mid-ninth century AD, the cultural scenario in Nepal Mandala the beyond had
changed to a great extent since the earlier period of the Licchavi rule. The two dominant
religions, Hinduism and Buddhism had also thrown many off-shoots and as a result,
various sects and cults had emerged. The entire stretch from Tibet across Nepal to the
centers of Buddihst learning in India was studded with religious teachers of different
sects. Tibetans and Buddhists came to Nepal to learn from the Nepalese scholars and
vice-versa, yet the Nepalese school of religion was developing its distinct trends. In a tiny
country where so many religious and philosophical ideas, cults and rituals mushroomed
and mingled, it was but natural for one to influence the other Instances of one religious
centre or temple being used by people of a different sect and practicing their own brand
of worship and meditation become common. This influence was reflected not only in the
writings of religious treatises but also in the writings of religious treatise but also in
sculptures, temples and the arts. Hindu gods and goddesses in the form of Boddhi
Sattavas and Buddhist pantheons in Hindu temples become a common feature in many
street corners, temples, palaces, courtyards and homes. God like Tara, Bhairava, Ganesha
and Kali become common to most religious and sects. Tatrism emerged as a dominant
cult that brought about a unique fusion between both Hinduism and Buddhism. This
influence dominated the religious practices, festival and dances of valley. the Kathmandu
valley, which had remained a prosperous Centerport become economically and culturally
rich. A new culture was emerging. An exotic and colorful, loaded with mysticism and
cult practices. The time had come for the Nepalese to knowledge their unique and
separate identity. An ear had dawned that justified the naming of a separate Nepal
Samvat; thus in October 879 AD began the Nepal Samvat (era). With this the Licchavi
period came to an end.
Due to lack of historical documentation, this period of Nepal’s history is termed
by western writers as a dark age of Nepalese History. But the new Era for the Transition
Period of Nepalese socio-cultural life was a period of marked religious fermentation and
cultural syncretism. The Kathmandu Mandala, which had seen great religious tolerance
and assimilation of various religious beliefs now become a huge melting pot in which
both major and minor religious systems were metamorphosed, favoring the growth of
syncretism religious cults. It was only in 1307 AD during the reign of Jaystallised.
Therefore, this period which comprises the rule of the later Licchivis and early Mallas
(1200 AD onward) can be logically viewed as a composite cultural era.
During this period, under successive weak Kings, the central government
collapsed. This Licchavi state was carved into scores of petty kingdoms under hereditary
lords or hill – top barons. In the surrounding settlements a sort of de-o’s cult, centering on
shrine and temples grew. The people of these settkements attached themselves more
closely to the respective sects, monasteries, viharas or gurus that existed there. The
Gosthi of early Licchavi period which now changed into Guthi, took the form of a group
of people within a settlement or parts of it, who were bound by some kinship and a social
form askin to that of an enlarged family group. The loyalties to these Guthis were strong.
In the general climate of disintegration of the central power, it gave succor. Within the
Guthi were voluntary culture group which provided for both entertainment ad formed
religious rules.
From the ninth century onwards, Buddhaism in Tibet suffered neglect for almost
three centuries and the Tibetans sought teachers, texts and cult objects southwards. By
the 10th century the Palas of Bengal were superseded by Sena rulers who followed
Brahmanical religion. With the emergence of Senas in eastern India and the ascendance
of Karnatka Kashatriya who were staunch Hindus in Bihar, Nepal remained the only
heaven for the Buddhist. Though Gunakama Deva, the ruler of Nepal made valuable
contribution to the Shaivist religious center as Pashupati Nath, almost simultaneously, the
Buddhists were converting the four centers of Matsysndra, Nath in the valley into
Buddhist pantheon Avalokiteswar when Gunakama Deva revived the chariot festival of
Matsyandra Nath, it was not only the Shaivites but also the Buddhists who participated
with equal enthusiasm, each paying obeisance and performing rituals to the same deity in
their respective in their respective ways Similarly, King Rudra Dev, the successor to
Gunakama Deva is said to have retired as a Banda to a Buddhist vihara. This shows that
from 11th century onwards Nepal was marked by unprecedented religious fermentation
and syncretism tendencies, resulting from contact, conflict and the eventual compromise
of several major and minor religions. During this time when weak kings rules the land,
not only were the middle class presenting its unprecedented social role but it is said that
even slaves, debtors and ordinary farmers (the Jyapus) were permitted to enter the Sangha
(Buddhist congregation).
There were servable Buddhist viharas from the elaborately run once like the
Mahabuddha Vihara of Patan, Bodhanatha, the major attraction for Lamaist sects to those
inside private houses of Guru or Guvaju in a Bahala or quadrangle of lay buildings. Such
proliferation of centers of religious studies and the mercantile enterprise, carried on by
the inhabitants of the valley facilitated in creating an ideological bridge between India
and Tibet. All steams of Buddhism during this period flowed into Nepal, which led to a
marvelous rapprochement of ideas in the filed of religion, philosophy, fine arts. Music,
popular lyrics, designs, ichnography, paintings and temple architecture.
We can not but mention the great role played by Tantricism, esoteric, erotic,
psychometric, mystic and ritualistic in promoting syncretistic religious thoughts and
practices. It was Tantricism which ultimately succeeded in brining about a peculiar union
between Shaivism and Buddhism, which is represented beautifully in the Sambhara (YabYum) images painted and crafted during this period. The Buddhist viharas played a
significant part in the filed of tantricism. The houses of eminent Buddhist teachers were
virtually schools for teaching, Buddhist doctrines, as well as for providing refuge to
Buddhist scholars, who had to flee the onslaught of Sena rulers of Bengal and Karnataka
Kshatriyas of Bihar, as also the hostile group and warlords of 11th Century Tibet.
Eminent Buddhist teachers from Tibet visited Nepal during this period. Dipankara who
came here in the 11th century was responsible for introducing his mystic and esoteric cult’
“Kala Chakra Yana” which found Favor in Nepal. Tibetan Buddhist came to Nepal and
translated many important Buddhist manuscripts written in Sanskrit, conversely, the
Nepalese translated important sect scriptures which were written in Tibetans and
simultaneously copied many Sanskrit manuscripts such as the Guhya Samaja Tantra and
Chakra Samvara being the most well-known ones. Though a hush falls into the
Kathmandu valley due to lack of historical evidence, after the 8th century, we find a large
number of manuscripts, colophons and thousands of copies of manuscripts of Buddhist
religious texts, which attest to the literary climate of this period. The art of paper making
(which came to Nepal from China) and the composition of dyes development to a great
extent during this period. Writings in ornate scripts seems have been dictated by the
increasing demands of patrons, within and outside. Though illuminated Buddhist
manuscripts are to be found in abundance, illuminated Brahmanical manuscripts of this
period survived only in Nepal. Such a trend in writing and the spread of Vajrayana and
Tantra in lesser centers led to encouragement I writing even in local dialects, free from
orthodox convention. In a society fragmented by division of political authority and
growth of localism, the dialects were many. What is today knows as Newari script or
language (though the word “Newar” first appeared only in 1654 AD), must have
hesitantly joined the written scripts of the time. The first use of Nepal Bhasa in an
inscription is dated Nepal Samvata 293 (1173 AD), but more regular use of Nepal Bhasa
and Newari Script is to be witnessed only in early 14th century.
Despite the anarchic political milieu the increasing demands of patrons following
various sects and practices fostered cultural activities. New Tantric divinities were
increasingly introduced into the Nepalese vihara, Bahala and domestic chapels of laity.
New gods did not replace older Buddhas and Bodisattvas, but the new ones stood side by
side where the old existed. The arrival of innumerable new deities with complicated
forms and combinations together with the demand for them as cult objects stimulated
metallurgical skill and enhanced production. Bronze casts, goldsmiths, stone sculptors
and wood carvers whose skills were rooted in the Licchavi art got ample stimulus. Art
objects left the ateliers in a never ending stream. Architecture continued to flourish with
the proliferation of new local patrons. In stone sculpture, the emphasis on volume
admirably presented during the early period, gave way to linear idiom and evidenced the
beginning of decline. But the Nepalese artists distinguished themselves in the field of
Buddhist iconography. A high order of sophistication has been reflected in elaborate
panels of temple decoration. In spite of intimate ties between the Palas and Nepal
Mandala, the art of the valley is so typically Nepalese, that except for some resemblance
in the attire as depicted in pictures and sculptures, Pala influences was minimal. The
richness of Nepalese art of this transitional period and its great demand outside the
country can be judged by the invitation extended to a delegation of artists in 1261 AD
from Nepal by the Chinese Emperor Kublai Khan. The artistic excellence of this team led
by the young master Arniko, can still be seen in some of the existing buildings, including
the Potala Palace of the Dalai Lama Golden Shrine in Tibet and the White Padoga in
Beijing.
During these obscure centuries, the throne was divided and constant tussles
between legitimate claim ants continued. Since the end of the 10th century, Nepal suffered
the brunt of invasions, pillage and massacres from within and without. At this juncture it
is necessary to make some general references to the cultural scenario of the areas outside
Kathmandu valley which forms part of the present day Nepal to the south of the valley in
the Mithala region, which witnessed upheavals during the long period between the
Maurya rulers of India in pre-Christian era to the rise of senas in the 11th centaury, an
incident of utmost importance took place. In 1097 AD Nanya Deva of Karnataka (South
India) established his sovereignty in the region, with Simaraon Garh as his capital,
situated at the foothill south of the Kathmandu valley. Though for some movement of the
Buddhist from the valley, it seems in suchcessive years, the Maithilis too tired to
penetrate into the valley. Till the end of the 13th century, there were no devastating raids
from the Mailthili Karnataka. But now people with different cultural experiences had
settled near the valley and had also occupied adjacent areas. Simraon Garth their political
head quarter was veritable museum of Karnataka art. Though the art works and even
decorative structures had invited Nepalese traits of influences they in turn influenced
Nepalese sculpture and art in subtle and implicit terms in successive years and ultimately
merged into the culture of the valley. the regions east of Nepala Mandala were all
occupied by the Kirants, who formed tribal groups and ruled their respective pockets in
the hills as well as the plains below, which were thickly covered with forests. Though
shift cultivation and hunting was their main occupations, they also sought employment
beyond Nepal. Therefore, they were not free from the cultural influences of religious
prevailing outside their domain. Shaivites, as well as Buddhist religious ideas and
practices were carried to these remote areas, mainly due to the efforts of wandering
Siddhas and Nathapaties who presented religion in simple form, through songs and
chanting.
The condition in Western Nepal was different from that of the east. Even in 500
AD a tribe called Khassa had penetrated into western Nepal. They had established their
kingdom, with their capital at Sinja, in the present day district of Jumla, at the foot of the
imposing Muktinath Mountain. Professor Tucci and Dr. Himendroff have provided ample
linguistic proof that the Khasas inhabitated the Karnali basin at the end of the 5th century.
Towards the end of he 12th century, the Khaas emerged as a powerful tribe, whose kings
bore the lofty name of the Mallas though we come across the mention of Mallapuri in
western Nepal, due to lack of conclusive evidence we can not say what the Khasas of
Karnali region were doing before the 12th century. However to wards the end of the 12
century, the khasa dynasty had extend their influence in Kumaon and Garhwal to the
west, south western-Tibet to the north and parts of western Nepal, even Ladakh according
to some historians. The fertile valleys of Jumla and the adjoining winter resort of Dullu
must have given them surplus agricultural produce. They took good care of the trade
routes with Tibet as well as India. The Khasa kings and traders visited as far as Gaya (in
Bihar province in India). Jumla, Sinja and Dullu were centers of a cultural crossroad in
medieval Nepal. Influences of animistic worship, the masta cult, Natha sect (Bhairvanath
and Chandannath temples of later years and the stele around them) and Buddhist stupas
found scattered along the route clearly show that the Khasa rulers were liberal towards all
religions. Their eagerness in visiting distant Boddha Gaya and entering the Kathmandu
valley to visit religious centers like Pashupati, Matsyndra Nath and Swayambhu clearly
shows their secularism and devotion to all religions. The large number of icons and
sculptures, which they carried from Nepal to Dullu when they raided the valley show
their secularism and devotion to all religions. The large number of icons and sculptures,
which they carried from Nepal to Dullu when they raided the valley, show their quest for
culture. Though from the 15th centuray onwards the Khasa empire disintegrated into
numerous tiny kingdoms, the language of the Khasa which must have developed from the
dialect of a tribe into the language of an extensive kingdom, was to provide a lease to the
expanding Gurkhas kingdom and ultimately to the modern Nepali language, which took
the coveted place of the national language.
Did the Khasa rulers, who called themselves Malla, have some lineage with the
Mallas of Kushinagar, in eastern India, during the 6th century BC or later? How it is their
surname coincides with the Mallas, who stated ruling the Kathmandu valley since 1200
AD? These are some questions which still remain unanswered. However since 1200 AD
rulers with ‘Malla’ as their surname stared ruling in Kathmandu Mandala, though some
rulers still used the surname of ‘Deva’ used by the Licchavi rulers. It appears that
gradually under a succession of weak kings and in a more permissive and incoherent
socio-cultural society the powerful nobility undermined the position of hereditary rulers
and claimed the throne with the support of the ruling class and affixed the hereditary or
assumed surname “Malla”. Even under these early Malla kings, confusion prevailed in
the valley, fostered by weak central rule and the increasingly permissive society.
Religion, which was fountainhead of culture, started degenerating into vague and varying
rituals-exploitative, immoral, erotic and obscene. The days of great teachers, scholars,
philosophers and gurus come to an end. Priesthood or religious institutions passed into
the hands of charlatans and turned into a joint product of the simplicity of the fools and
duplicity of the first knaves.
When such was the socio-cultural scenario at the end of the 13th century,
calamities and devastations swept the valley. Since the 11th century, northern India was
already witnessing raids by Muslim aggressors. It seems some people belonging to the
ruling classes in India fled and settled in the hills of Nepal. When the Muslim raiders
swept into the eastern provinces if India, specially Magadha (the ancient center of
Buddhism) and Bengal, ruled by Sena rulers, they did not meet much resistance.
Religions that had degenerated into mere superstitions and opulent immorality had
sapped the strength as well as will of the rulers to enable them to face the ferocious
invaders. Devastation and plunder become the order of the day, and in the prevailing
confusion, the Buddhist intellectuals of renowned universities like Nalanda and
Vikramashila fled with whatever manuscripts they could carry. A large number of them
sought shelter in Kathmandu valley in numerous monasteries, religious centers (like
Swayambhu and Bodhanatha), viharas and houses of Nepalese scholars. But then, the
valley it’s self, where cultural standards were slowly deteriorating had to face calamities
in succession. In 1255 AD of a devastating earthquake shook the valley. it is said, about
1/3 of the population perished. From this we can imagine its effects on the monuments,
temples and subsequently the cultural life of the people. This devastation was followed
by famine, which drained the cultural wealth of the prosperous land. When the valley had
not yet recovered from the shock, tha Khassa of western Nepal, invaded the valley in
1287 AD and took away with them wealth, sculptures and artifacts to their winter capital,
Dullu. It was soon followed by the first invasion of the Karnataka Kashtriyas who
targeted the city of Bhaktapur (which was abandoned by the Khasas) and they rushed
back with the booty to their summer capital, Simaraon Garh. In 1313 AD the Khasas
came to the valley, specially to worship the Bungmati Lokeswara Pashupati, Machyendra
Nath and Swayambhu Buddha, the people not only from the hills of Nepal but also from
the plains of India and Tibet beyond the Himalayas came flocking to these religious
centers. But, then the Khasas dd not go without their share enterd the valley wth force,
but as luck would have it, the Muslim conqueror of Bengal Ghias-ud-din Tughlaq
dislodged Harasimha Deva, the Karnataka ruler from this territory.
Subesquently, the Karnatakas fled into Nepal, moving upto Dolakha to the east of
the valley. To what degree did these refugee influenced the art and culture of the valley is
not known. But we do know that the Karnataka ruler brought his ancestral deity Taleju
and installed it at Bhaktapur. The Taleju was subsequently the personal diety of the
Mallas. In 1328 AD Adittya Malla, the Khasa ruler, entered the valley, and after a few
days retreated to his kingdom. His invasion added more confusion to the exiting chaos in
the valley, which was now tired, timid and leaderless. Though the natural mountain
barriers inslulated the valley from the political changes, as a result of the occupation of
India by the Muslim, Kathmandu too, had the taste of the onslaught of the iconoclasts. In
1346 AD the Muslim general Illyas Shah entered the valley and devastated temples and
monasteries, breaking the image of Pashupati into three pieces and burning viharas and
stupas including the stupa of Swayambhu Buddha and the famous Pimtha vihara of Patan.
The perishablity of wooden temples of Nepal and the delicated metallic structures and
icons succumbed easily to the zeal of the devastating raiders, who rampaged the valley
for a week.
Every trial has its compensation. If the continuous raids and devastations in the
Kathmandu