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WORLD GEOGRAPHY
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Physical and Regional Geography
I. Map concepts: scale, latitude, longitude, relative location and orientation.
II. Using a variety of sources supports the process of geographic inquiry.
A. GIS (Geographic Information Systems)
B. Field work
C. Satellite images
D. Photographs
E. Maps, globes
F. Data bases
G. Primary sources
III. Latitude and longitude define absolute location.
IV. Relative location describes the spatial relationships between and among places.
V. Areas can be represented using a variety of scales.
VI. The amount of detail shown on a map is dependent on the scale used.
VII. Compass rose (directional indicator) identifies map orientation.
VIII. Mental maps are based on objective knowledge and subjective perceptions; Uses include ...
A. Carry out daily activities (e.g., route to school, shopping)
B. Give directions to others
C. Understand world events
IX. People develop and refine their mental maps through both personal experience and learning;
Ways that mental maps can be developed and refined include ...
A. Comparing sketch maps to maps in atlases or other resources
B. Describing the location of places in terms of reference points (e.g., the equator, prime
meridian)
C. Describing the location of places in terms of geographic features and land forms (e.g.,
west of the Mississippi River, north of the Gulf of Mexico)
D. Describing the location of places in terms of the human characteristics of a place (e.g.,
languages, types of housing, dress, recreation, customs and traditions)
X. Mental maps serve as indicators of how well people know the spatial characteristics of certain
places.
XI. A map is a visual representation of geographic information.
A. Standard ways that maps show information
1. Symbols
2. Color
3. Lines
4. Boundaries
5. Contours
B. Types of thematic maps
1. Population (e.g., distribution and density)
2. Economic activity
3. Resource
4. Language
5. Ethnicity
6. Climate
7. Precipitation
8. Vegetation
9. Physical
10. Political
XII. All maps are distorted representations of the Earth’s surface.
A. Selected map projections
1. Mercator
2. Polar
3. Robinson
B. Aspects of the Earth that can be distorted
1. Area
2. Shape
3. Distance
4. Direction
XIII. Different map projections are developed for specific purposes.
A. Mercator - ship navigation
B. Polar - airline navigation
C. Robinson - data representation
XIV. Climate is defined by certain characteristics.
A. Temperature
B. Precipitation
C. Seasons (hot/cold; wet/dry)
XV. Climate patterns result from the interplay of common elements.
A. Influence of latitude
B. Influence of winds
C. Influence of elevation
D. Proximity to water
XVI. Climate regions have distinctive vegetation.
A. World climate regions
1. Low latitudes - e.g., tropical wet, tropical wet & dry, arid, semiarid, and highland
2. Middle latitudes - e.g., semiarid, arid, Mediterranean, humid continental, marine
west coast, and humid subtropical
3. High latitudes - e.g., subarctic, tundra, and ice cap
B. Vegetation regions
1. Tropical rain forest
2. Savanna
3. Desert
4. Steppe
5. Middle latitude forests (deciduous, coniferous, mixed, Mediterranean scrub)
6. Taiga
7. Tundra
XVII. Certain weather phenomena are unique to specific regions.
A. Monsoons - South and Southeast Asia
B. Typhoons - Pacific Ocean
C. Hurricanes - Atlantic Ocean
D. Tornadoes - United States
XVIII. Climate and weather phenomena affect how people live in different regions.
A. Crops
B. Clothing
C. Housing
D. Natural hazards
XIX. Physical and ecological processes shape the Earth’s surface.
A. Earthquakes
B. Floods
C. Volcanoes
D. Erosion
XX. Humans both influence and influenced by their environment.
A. Human impact on the environment
1. Water diversion/management
a. Aral Sea
b. Colorado River
c. Aswan High Dam
d. Canals
e. Reservoirs
f. Irrigation
2. Changing landscapes
a. Agricultural terracing (e.g., China, Southeast Asia)
b. Polders (e.g., the Netherlands)
c. Deforestation (e.g., Nepal, Brazil, Malaysia)
d. Desertification (e.g., Africa, Asia)
3. Environmental changes
a. Acid rain (e.g., forests in Germany, Scandinavia, China, and eastern
North America)
b. Pollution (e.g., Mexico City, Chernobyl, oil spills)
B. Environmental impact on humans
1. Settlement patterns
2. Housing materials
3. Agricultural activity
4. Types of recreation
5. Transportation patterns
XXI. Technology has expanded people’s capability to modify and adapt to their physical environment.
A. Agriculture (e.g., fertilizers, mechanization)
B. Energy usage (e.g., fossil fuels, nuclear)
C. Transportation (e.g., road building, railways)
D. Automobiles (e.g., parking lots, suburbs)
E. Airplanes (e.g., airport expansion, noise)
XXII. Regions are areas of the Earth’s surface which share similar unifying characteristics. They are
used to simplify the world for study and understanding.
XXIII. Regions may be defined by physical or cultural characteristics.
A. Physical regions
1. Sahara
2. Taiga
3. Rain forest
4. Great Plains
5. Low Countries
B. Cultural regions
1. Language: Latin America and Francophone world
2. Ethnic: Chinatowns and Kurdistan
3. Religion: Islam and Buddhism
4. Economic: Wheat Belts and European Union (EU)
5. Political: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and African Union (AU)
XXIV. Regional labels may reflect changes in people’s perceptions.
A. Middle East
B. Sun Belt
C. Rust Belt
XXV. Regional landscapes reflect cultural characteristics of their inhabitants.
A. Architectural structures
1. Religious buildings (e.g., mosques, churches, synagogues, temples, pagodas)
2. Dwellings (e.g., tiled roofs in Mediterranean, chalets in Switzerland, thatched
roofs in Pacific Islands, tents and yurts in Central and Southwest Asia, castles in
Europe)
B. Statues and monuments of local, national, or global significance
1. Taj Mahal (India)
2. Kaaba (Mecca)
3. Western Wall (Jerusalem)
4. Dome of the Rock (Jerusalem)
5. Church of the Holy Sepulcher (Jerusalem)
6. Pyramids (Egypt)
7. Kremlin (Moscow)
8. Eiffel Tower (Paris)
9. Virginia State Capitol Building
10. Washington Monument
11. White House
12. Lincoln Memorial
13. Statue of Liberty
XXVI. The development of a region is influenced by many factors, including physical, economic and
cultural characteristics.
XXVII. The interaction of humans with their environment affects the development of a region.
A. Deforestation - Amazon Basin, Nepal, and Malaysia.
B. Acid rain - Black Forest of Germany
C. Decreased soil fertility - Aswan High Dam
XXVIII. Different criteria may be used to determine a country’s relative importance.
A. GDP (Gross Domestic Product)
B. Land size
C. Population size
D. Resources
XXIX. Elements of the physical environment such as major bodies of water and mountains, influence the
economic and cultural characteristics of regions.
A. Water
1. Rio Grande - boundary
2. Ob River - flows northward into Arctic Ocean
3. Zambezi River - water power
4. Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers - flood hazard
B. Mountains
1. Rocky Mountains - create rain shadows on leeward slopes
2. Himalayas - block moisture to create steppes and deserts in Central Asia
XXX. Latin America and the Caribbean
A. Mexico and Central America: Mexico, Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama
B. South America: Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, Ecuador,
Peru, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile
C. Caribbean: Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico (US)
D. Physical Characteristics
1. Major mountain ranges - Andes, Sierra Madres
2. Rainforests
3. Coastal desert - Atacama
4. Reversed seasons south of the equator
5. Amazon River Basin
6. Grasslands, pampas, and llanos
7. Tropical climates predominant
8. Volcanoes and earthquakes
9. Archipelagoes
10. Vertical zonation (tierra caliente, tierra templada, and tierra fria)
E. Economic Characteristics
1. Diverse economies
2. Subsistence farming
3. Plantation agriculture
4. Slash and burn agriculture
5. Cash crops and food crops
6. Haciendas
7. Cattle ranges, gauchos
8. Deforestation
9. Destruction of rainforests
10. Oil resources: Ecuador, Venezuela, and Mexico
11. Heavy smog, pollution - Mexico City
12. Disparity of income distribution
13. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) - Mexico, Canada, and US
14. Diverse mineral resources (e.g., copper in Chile, iron ore in Venezuela and
Brazil)
F. Cultural Characteristics
1. Indian civilizations
2. African traditions
3. Influence of European colonization
4. Predominance of Roman Catholic religion
5. Rigid social structure
6. Mestizos
7. Location of settlements: coastal in South America
8. Megacities, squatter settlements
9. Rapid population growth
10. Out-migration
11. Cultural heritage: music (African influences, calypso, steel drum bands, reggae),
traditional dances, and Spanish & Portuguese languages
12. Cultural landscapes: pyramids, cathedrals, Haciendas, ejidos (communal land),
Machu Picchu, and Tikal
13. Cities as centers of culture and trade: Mexico City, Rio de Janeiro, Buenos Aires,
and Santiago
XXXI. Europe
A. Countries with high GDPs: Switzerland, Luxembourg, and Sweden
B. Countries with large land sizes: Ukraine, France, and Spain
C. Countries with large populations: Germany, United Kingdom, Italy, and France
D. Physical Characteristics
1. Part of large landmass called Eurasia
2. Peninsulas: Iberian, Italian, Scandinavian, and Jutland
3. Islands: Great Britain, Sicily, and Ireland
4. Fjords
5. Mountains: Alps and Pyrenees
6. Northern European Plain
7. Rivers: Danube, Rhine, Seine, and Volga
8. Seas: Adriatic, Aegean, Mediterranean, Baltic, Black, and North
9. Oceans: Arctic and Atlantic
10. Strait of Gibraltar
11. Varied climate regions - tundra to Mediterranean
12. Effects of the North Atlantic Drift and prevailing westerlies on Europe’s climates
E. Economic Characteristics
1. Mountain regions - tourism, recreation, and mineral resources
2. Areas threatened by air and water pollution - forests (Black Forest), cities (Venice), and Rivers (Rhine, Danube,
and Seine)
3. Development of industrial and transportation centers near mineral deposits, coal,
and iron ore (Ruhr Valley and Po Valley)
4. Rivers and canals serving as major transportation links
5. Oil reserves in the North Sea
6. Well-educated workforce - industrial and technological societies, banking in
Switzerland
7. Advanced farming techniques, high crop yields, fertile soils, and black earth (chernozem)
8. Well-developed infrastructure
9. The Chunnel
10. Differences in Western and Eastern European industrial development due to
differing economic systems in prior years
11. European Union
12. Trade important, especially to island nations; interdependence
13. Large role of government in some economies (Sweden and Denmark)
14. Replacement of communism with capitalism in Eastern Europe
15. Reclaimed lands - Polders in the Netherlands
16. Demographics typical of developed countries: high per capita GDP, high life expectancy, low population growth
rate, low infant mortality, low percentage of population under age 15, and high literacy rate
F. Cultural Characteristics
1. Birthplace of Industrial Revolution
2. Many ethnic groups - languages, religions, and customs
3. Sporadic conflict among groups (wars, revolutions)
4. Birthplace of western democracy - Greece and Rome
5. Spread of European culture to many other parts of the world (exploration, colonization, and imperialism)
6. Highly urbanized
7. One of world’s most densely populated areas
8. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
9. Cities as centers of culture and trade: Berlin, London, Paris, Madrid, Rome, Athens, and Warsaw
10. Cultural landscape: Notre Dame, Arc de Triomphe, Louvre, Eiffel Tower, Colosseum, Leaning Tower of Pisa,
St. Peter’s Basilica, Parthenon, Westminster Abbey, Big Ben, Windmills, and Castles
XXXII. United States and Canada
A. Physical Characteristics
1. Abundant natural resources
2. Continental Divide
3. Rivers: Mississippi, St. Lawrence, Colorado, Columbia, and Rio Grande
4. Other water features: Gulf of Mexico, Great Lakes, Arctic Ocean, Pacific Ocean, Atlantic Ocean, and Hudson
Bay
5. Land forms: Aleutian Islands, Hawaiian archipelago, Appalachian Mountains, Pacific Coastal Ranges, Basin and
Range, Rocky Mountains, Great Plains, Interior lowlands, Atlantic and Gulf coastal plains, Canadian Shield, and
Grand Canyon
6. Varied climate regions - ranging from tundra in Alaska to tropical wet in Hawaii
B. Economic Characteristics
1. Major exporters of technology, consumer goods, information systems, and foodstuffs
2. Highly developed infrastructures
3. Highly diversified economies
4. Rich supply of mineral, energy, and forest resources
5. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
6. Multinational corporations
7. Center of world financial markets (New York Stock Exchange)
8. Sustained economic growth
9. Widening gap between rich and poor
10. Export of US culture via the global marketplace (e.g., McDonald’s, Coca Cola, music and blue jeans)
C. Cultural Characteristics
1. Colonized by the Europeans
2. Multicultural societies
3. Increasingly diverse populations
4. High literacy rates
5. High standard of living
6. Highly urbanized
7. Canada’s struggle to maintain a national identity
8. Highly mobile populations
9. World’s longest unfortified border between Canada and US
10. Democratic forms of government
11. Arts that reflect the cultural heritage of multicultural societies
12. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
13. Cities as centers of culture and trade: Toronto, Montreal, Ottawa, Quebec, Vancouver, Washington, D.C.,
Chicago, New York City, Los Angeles, Houston
14. Cultural landscape: U.S. Capitol Building, Golden Gate Bridge, Independence Hall, St. Louis Gateway Arch,
wheat fields, skyscrapers, shopping malls, bilingual signs, influence of the automobile (e.g., gas stations, motels,
interstate highways, and drive-up services)
XXXIII. North Africa and Southwest Asia (Middle East)
A. Countries with high GDPs: Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, and Israel
B. Countries with large land sizes: Algeria, Saudi Arabia, and Libya
C. Countries with large populations: Iran, Turkey, and Egypt
D. Physical Characteristics
1. Crossroads of Europe, Asia, and Africa
2. Desert and semiarid climates - Sahara, sahel, steppes
3. Mountains: Atlas, Taurus, Zagros
4. Water features: Mediterranean Sea, Red Sea, Black Sea, Arabian Sea, Persian/Arabian Gulf, Strait of Hormuz,
Bosporus Strait, Dardanelles Strait, Nile River, Tigris River, Euphrates River, and Jordan River
5. Seasonal flooding, alluvial soils, delta regions, oases, and wadis
E. Economic Characteristics
1. Heavy reliance on primary economic activity (oil drilling, agriculture, pastoralism)
2. Major producers of world’s oil
3. Oil revenues - positive and negative effects
4. Water - region’s most precious resource
5. Great variation in standard of living - ranging from relatively high to poverty- stricken
6. Regional conflicts, political unrest that affects tourism
7. Aswan High Dam - positive and negative effects
8. Suez Canal - enhanced shipping routes in the region
9. Guest workers
10. Trade important to region from earliest time
11. Wide range of per capita income and levels of development
12. Contemporary trade routes (sea lanes)
13. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
F. Cultural Characteristics
1. Rapid urbanization
2. Modernization centered in urban areas while traditional life continues in rural areas
3. Large percentage of population under age 15
4. Population unevenly distributed
5. Arab countries and Arabic language
6. Non-Arab countries: Turkey, Iran, and Israel
7. Birthplace of three major monotheistic religions - Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
8. Conflict over Palestine
9. Nomadic lifestyles
10. Art that reflects the diversity of religions (stained glass, geometric tiles, calligraphy, mosaics, prayer rugs)
11. Cities as centers of culture and trade: Baghdad, Cairo, Istanbul, Jerusalem, Mecca, and Tehran
12. Cultural landscape: mosques, minarets, Church of the Holy Sepulcher, Hagia Sophia, bazaars, suqs, Western
Wall, Dome of the Rock, Kaaba, pyramids, oil rigs, and walled cities
XXXIV. Sub-Saharan Africa
A. Countries with high GDPs: South Africa, Gabon, and Botswana
B. Countries with large land sizes: Democratic Republic of the Congo, Sudan, Chad, Mozambique, and Madagascar
C. Countries with large populations: Nigeria, Ethiopia, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania, and Kenya
D. Physical Characteristics
1. Continent composed of a huge plateau, escarpment
2. River transportation impeded by waterfalls and rapids
3. Location of equator through middle of continent; similar climate patterns north and south of the equator
4. Smooth coastline; few harbors
5. Large number of landlocked states
6. Storehouse of mineral wealth
7. Limited fertility of rainforest soils
8. Kalahari and Namib Deserts
9. Bodies of water: Nile River, Zambezi River, Niger River, Congo River, Atlantic Ocean, Indian Ocean, Red Sea,
Lake Victoria, and Lake Tanganyika
10. Nature preserves and national parks
E. Economic Characteristics
1. Large percentage of the population engaged in agriculture (primary activity)
2. Subsistence agriculture
3. Nomadic herding
4. Slash and burn agriculture
5. Plantation agriculture
6. Cash crops and food crops
7. Poorly developed infrastructure
8. Large number of landlocked states
9. Substantial mineral wealth (diamonds, gold, alloys)
10. Major exporters of raw materials
11. Wide range of per capita income
12. Productivity that lags behind population growth
13. Desertification
14. Demographics typical of developing economies: low per capita GDP, low life expectancy, high population
growth rate, high infant mortality, large percentage of population under age 15, and low literacy rates
F. Cultural Characteristics
1. Uneven population distribution
2. Many ethnic groups - languages, customs
3. Large number of refugees
4. Few cities with populations over one million
5. Knowledge of history through oral tradition
6. Country names related to historical empires - Mali, Ghana, and Zimbabwe
7. Diversity of Africans reflected in cultural heritage: masks, sculpture, dance, music, colorful dress, and jewelry
8. Cities as centers of culture and trade: Lagos, Dakar, and Johannesburg
9. Cultural landscape: markets, churches, mosques, minarets, villages, and modern city cores
XXXV. Russia and Central Asia
A. Countries with high GDPs: Kazakhstan, Russia, and Turkmenistan
B. Countries with large land sizes: Russia, Kazakhstan, and Turkmenistan
C. Countries with large populations: Russia, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan
D. Physical Characteristics
1. Vast land area - spans two continents: Europe & Asia (covers 11 time zones)
2. Vast areas of tundra, permafrost, taiga, and steppe
3. Varied climate regions
4. Black earth belt (rich chernozem soil)
5. Mountains
6. Caucasus
7. Ural Mountains (divide Europe from Asia)
8. Siberia (the sleeping land), located east of the Urals
9. Major oil, natural gas, and mineral resources
10. Water features: Volga River, Ob River, Amur River, Lake Baikal, Caspian Sea, Aral Sea, Bering Strait, Pacific
Ocean, and Arctic Ocean
11. Some rivers flows northward to the Arctic Ocean
E. Economic Characteristics
1. Transition from communist to free market economies
2. Farming and industry concentrated in the Fertile Triangle region, rich, chernozem soils (wheat farming)
3. Infrastructure - Trans-Siberian Railroad, systems of rivers and canals and railroads
4. Energy resources - hydroelectric power, oil, and natural gas
5. Russian natural resources not fully developed due to climate, limited transportation links, and vastness of country
6. Foreign competition for investment in the region (oil pipelines)
7. Widespread pollution
8. Shrinking of the Aral Sea
9. Political and economic difficulties after the breakup of the Soviet Union
10. Cotton production in Central Asia
F. Cultural Characteristics
1. Diverse ethnic groups, customs and traditions (many of Turkic and Mongol heritage)
2. Cultural heritage: ballet, Faberge eggs, music, icons, Matrioshka dolls, oriental carpets, and samovars
3. Cultural landscape: Russian Orthodox churches, St. Basil’s Church, Red Square, Kremlin, mosques, minarets,
Siberian villages, and Soviet-style apartment blocks
4. Cities as centers of culture and trade: Moscow, St. Petersburg, and Novosibirsk
XXXVI. South, Southeast, and East Asia
A. Countries of South Asia: Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka
B. Countries of Southeast Asia: Philippines, Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Cambodia, Burma (Myanmar), Laos,
Vietnam, Singapore, and Brunei
C. Countries of East Asia: Mongolia, China (People’s Republic of China), Japan, Taiwan (Republic of China), North
Korea, and South Korea
D. Physical Characteristics
1. Influence of mountains - population, settlements, movement, climate
2. Mountains: Himalayas, Western and Eastern Ghats, Mount Fuji
3. Varied climate regions ranging from tropical wet to humid continental
4. Natural hazards - monsoons, typhoons, volcanoes, and earthquakes
5. Influence of water (rivers, seas, and ocean currents) on agriculture, trade, and transportation
6. Bodies of water: Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, Bay of Bengal, Ganges River, Indus River, Brahmaputra River,
Pacific Ocean, Yangtze River (Chang Jiang), Mekong River, and Yellow River (Huang He)
7. Abundant arable land
8. Loess
9. Plateau of Tibet
10. Gobi Desert
E. Economic Characteristics
1. Varied economies in the region ranging from subsistence/commercial agriculture to high-tech industrial
manufacturing
2. Participation in global markets
3. New industrialized countries - South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore
4. Japan - economic leader
5. China in transition from a centrally planned economy
6. Agricultural advancements and technology, enabling greater food production - “Green Revolution”
7. Environmental degradation
8. Deforestation
9. Fishing
10. ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)
11. Rice, tropical crops
F. Cultural Characteristics
1. Areas of extremely dense and sparse population
2. Contrast between rural and urban areas
3. Religious diversity - Hinduism, Islam, Buddhism, Christianity, Taoism, Shinto, and Confucianism
4. Caste system in India
5. Respect for ancestors
6. Religious conflicts (Hindu/Muslim)
7. Cultural heritage: silk, batik, wood and ivory carving, ideograms, unique alphabets, and jewels
8. Cities as centers of culture and trade: Tokyo, Beijing, and New Delhi
9. Cultural landscape: Taj Mahal, Angkor Wat, Great Wall of China, floating markets, mosques, minarets, pagodas,
temples and shrines, and terraced rice fields
XXXVII. Australia, Pacific Islands, and Antarctica
A. Countries: Australia, New Zealand, and Papua New Guinea
B. Physical Characteristics
1. Wide range of vegetation, from tropical rain forests to desert scrub
2. Australia is mostly desert
3. The Great Dividing Range
4. The Great Barrier Reef
5. Australia’s isolation, resulting in unique animal life
6. Antarctica, the world’s coldest, driest, windiest continent, ice cap
7. Pacific Islands - volcanic, coral, or continental
C. Economic Characteristics
1. Air and water travel that bring goods and services to remote areas
2. Dry areas of Australia well suited to cattle and sheep ranching
3. Upset of environmental balance, caused by the introduction of non-native plants and animals
4. Ranching, mining (primary activities)
D. Cultural Characteristics
1. Pacific islands are sparsely populated
2. Most of Australia’s population lives near the coast
3. Traditional culture continues to shape life in the Pacific islands
4. Lifestyles range from subsistence farming to modern city living
5. Cultures reflect the mix of European and indigenous cultures (e.g., Maori and aborigines)
6. Antarctica has no permanent residents
7. Cities as centers of culture and trade: Canberra, Sydney, and Melbourne
8. Cultural landscape: Sydney Opera House, cattle and sheep stations (Australia), research stations (Antarctica). and
thatched roof dwellings (Pacific islands)
Cultural Geography
I. Maps reflect changes over time.
A. Knowledge
1. Map of Columbus’ time
2. Satellite images
3. GIS (geographic information systems)
B. Place names
1. Formosa, Taiwan, Republic of China
2. Palestine, Israel and the Occupied Territories
C. Boundaries
1. Africa - 1914, 1990s
2. Europe - Before WWII and after WWII; since 1990
3. Russia and the former Soviet Union
4. Middle East - Before 1948, After 1967
D. Perspectives of place names
1. Arabian Gulf v. Persian Gulf
2. Sea of Japan v. East Sea
3. Middle East v. North Africa and Southwest Asia
E. Disputed areas
1. Korea
2. Western Sahara
3. Former Yugoslavia
4. Kashmir
II. Cultural differences can link or divide regions.
A. Language
1. Arab world - Arabic
2. Hispanic America - Spanish
3. Brazil - Portuguese
4. Canada - French/English
5. Switzerland - multiple languages
6. English - world language
B. Ethnic heritage
1. Yugoslavia - Serbs, Croats, Bosnians, Albanians
2. Burundi and Rwanda - Hutus and Tutsis
3. United States & Switzerland - unity in multiple ethnic countries
4. Korea & Japan - predominantly single ethnicity
5. Cyprus - Greeks and Turks
C. Religion as a unifying force
1. Hinduism
2. Buddhism
3. Judaism
4. Christianity
5. Islam
D. Religion as a divisive force
1. Conflicts between Hindus and Muslims in Pakistan and India
2. Conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland
3. Jews, Christians, and Muslims all claiming Jerusalem as their religious heritage site
III. Divisions are regions of the Earth’s surface over which groups of people establish social, economic and political
control. Examples include ...
A. Countries
B. Alliances: economic and political
1. North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
2. European Union (EU)
3. Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
4. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
5. Commonwealth of Nations
6. United Nations
7. Red Cross/Red Crescent
8. Organization of American States (OAS)
9. League of Arab States
10. Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
11. African Union (AU)
IV. Spatial divisions may generate conflict. Reasons why include ...
A. Differences in culture, language, religion
B. Retention of historical boundaries
C. Imperial conquest and control
D. Economic similarities and differences
E. Boundary and territorial disputes (Syria/Israel - Golan Heights; Western Sahara/Morocco; China/Taiwan;
India/Pakistan - Kashmir; and Iraq/Kuwait)
F. Cultural differences (language, religion)
1. Indonesia
2. Canada (Quebec)
3. Ireland
4. Sudan
G. Economic differences (fertile land, access to fresh water, access to coast, fishing rights, natural resources,
different economic philosophies)
H. Ethnic differences
1. Balkans
2. Cyprus
3. Rwanda and Burundi
4. Kashmir
I. Nationalism
V. Cooperation may eliminate the need for the division and control of the Earth’s surface. Examples include ...
A. Humanitarian initiatives - e.g., Red Cross/Red Crescent
B. Economic alliances - e.g., Law of Sea, China and the US, multinational corporations, North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA), and Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
C. Cultural alliances - e.g., Francophone world, Commonwealth of Nations
D. Military alliances - e.g., North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
E. Problem-solving alliances - e.g., Antarctica Treaty, United Nations (UN) peacekeepers
F. Programs to promote international understanding - e.g., Peace Corps
G. Alliances for environmental preservation
H. Foreign aid
Global and Urban Geography
I. Population distribution is described according to location and density. Factors that influence population
distribution include ...
A. Natural resources (oil, arable land, water)
B. Climate (hot/cold; wet/dry)
C. Economic development
D. Government policy
E. Rural/urban settlement
F. Capital resources (transportation, technology)
G. Conflicts (refugees)
II. Characteristics of human populations differ over time and from region to region. Characteristics include ...
A. Birth and death rates
B. Age distribution
C. Male/female distribution
D. Life expectancy
E. Infant mortality
F. Urban/rural
G. GDP
H. Ethnicity
I. Language
J. Religion
K. Education
III. Population growth rates are influenced by human, environmental, economic, and political factors. Factors
include ...
A. Modern medicine and hygiene
B. Education
C. Industrialization and urbanization
D. Economic development
E. Government policy
F. Role of women in society
IV. Migrations occur because of social, political, and environmental factors.
A. Push factors include overpopulation, religious persecution, lack of job opportunities, agricultural decline,
conflict, political persecution, natural hazards (droughts, floods, famines, volcanic eruptions), limits on personal
freedom, and environmental degradation
B. Pull factors include religion, economic opportunity, land availability, political freedom, ethnic and family ties,
and arable land
V. Migrations have influenced cultural landscapes. Impacts include ...
A. Language
B. Religion and religious freedom
C. Customs/traditions
D. Cultural landscape
VI. Modern transportation and communication are encouraging higher levels of cultural interaction worldwide.
Evidence of cultural interaction includes ...
A. Diffusion of US culture to other regions
B. Popularization of other cultures’ traditions in the US
VII. The use of a resource depends on a nation’s culture, values, access to technology, and governmental priorities
as they change over time.
A. Social and economic priorities that influence a culture’s perspective on resources
1. Economic development priorities
2. Environmental conservation priorities
3. Priorities of indigenous minorities
B. Examples of technologies that have created demand for particular resources
1. Steam engine - demand for coal
2. Internal combustion engine (cars and trucks) - demand for gasoline (petroleum)
3. Computer chips - demand for skilled labor
C. Costs of using resources
1. Resource depletion
2. Environmental degradation
3. Health problems
D. Benefits of using resources
1. Production of goods and services
2. Employment opportunities
3. Development of technologies
VIII. Divisions are regions of the Earth’s surface over which groups of people establish social, economic, and
political control.
A. Examples of spatial divisions include neighborhoods, election districts, school districts, regions districts (e.g., bus
lines, waste disposal, conservation districts, planning districts, area code zones), cities, counties, states
B. Reasons for spatial divisions
1. Desire for government closer to home
2. Need to solve local problems
3. Need to administer resources more efficiently
IX. Spatial divisions may generate conflict. Reasons include ...
A. Boundary disputes
B. Cultural differences
C. Economic differences
D. Competition for scarce resources
E. Political advantages (e.g., gerrymandering)
X. Spatial divisions may generate cooperation. Reasons include ...
A. Natural disasters
B. Economic advantages (attract new businesses)
C. Cultural similarities, ethnic neighborhoods
D. Addressing regional issues (e.g., waste management, magnet schools, transportation)
XI. Site and situation are important geographic concepts when studying the growth of cities.
A. Site is the actual location of a city; examples include ...
1. Harbor sites: New York City; Alexandria, Egypt; Istanbul, Turkey
2. Island sites: Paris (originally located on an island in the Seine River); Hong Kong; Singapore
3. Fall line site: Richmond, Virginia
4. Confluence sites: Khartoum, Sudan; Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
5. Hilltop sites: Rome; Athens; Jerusalem
6. Oasis site: Damascus, Syria
7. Sites where rivers narrow: London; Quebec City
B. Situation is another name for relative location - the location of a city with respect to other geographic features,
regions, resources, and transport routes
1. Baghdad - command of land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
2. Istanbul - command of straits and land bridge to Europe
3. Mecca, Saudi Arabia; Varanasi, India - focal point of pilgrimage
4. Samarkand, Uzbekistan; Xi’an, China; Timbuktu, Mali; Singapore - cities that grew up around trade routes (the
Silk Road; Trans-Sahara trade; maritime trade)
5. Capetown, South Africa - supply station for ships
6. Omaha, Nebraska; Sacramento, California - cities that grew up along the US Transcontinental Railroad
7. Novosibirsk; Vladivostok - cities that grew up along the Trans-Siberian Railroad
XII. The functions of towns and cities change over time.
A. Functions of towns and cities
1. Security, defense
2. Religious centers
3. Trade centers (local and long distance)
4. Government administration
5. Manufacturing centers
6. Service centers
B. Examples of changes in cities’ functions over time
1. Rio de Janeiro - move of Brazil’s capital city from Rio de Janeiro to Brasilia
2. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania - early function connected to defense; then became steel manufacturing center; later
shifted to diverse services (light manufacturing, financial)
3. New York City - changes in trade patterns; coastal and transatlantic trade; trade from Great Lakes via the Erie
Canal; worldwide trade and finances
4. Mining towns, “ghost” towns - resource depletion, changes in the environment
XIII. Urban populations exercise a powerful influence in shaping the world’s cultural, political, and economic ideas
and systems. Influences include ...
A. Nation-building (monuments, symbols)
B. Transportation/communication hubs
C. Magnets for migration
D. Seed beds of new ideas and technologies
E. Diversity, leading to creativity in the arts
F. Universities, educational opportunities
G. Corporate headquarters/regional offices
H. Media centers (new, entertainment)
XIV. Urban development may lead to problems related to human mobility, social structure, and the environment.
Problems include ...
A. Transportation problems emerge, especially as automobile travel increases
B. Rich and poor neighborhoods exist in different areas isolated from one another
C. Providing essential services (fresh water, sewage, disposal, electricity, schools, clinics)
D. Air, water, and noise pollution increase
E. Sprawl results in the conversion of agricultural land to urban uses, especially in No. Am.
F. Rapid immigration results in “shantytowns” on the edges of cities in Latin America, Africa, and Asia
G. In developing countries, major cities are more connected to regions outside the country than to regions within the
country
XV. An understanding of the practical applications of geography enables students to be informed, active citizens in
their communities. Geographic applications include ...
A. Recycling programs
B. Conversion of land from agricultural use
C. Water sources (e.g., dams, reservoirs, wells, pipelines, ocean)
D. Airport expansion
E. Air quality
F. Boundaries (e.g., school zones)
G. Bicycle paths
H. Mass transit
I. City planning and zoning laws
J. Energy use
K. Location and size of public buildings (e.g., schools, recreation centers, hospitals, and libraries)
L. Selection of locations for new stores and businesses
XVI. Current events are shaped by the physical and human characteristics of the places and regions where they
occur.
A. How physical characteristics influence current events
1. Natural hazards (e.g., flooding, earthquakes, volcanoes, drought)
2. Climate and vegetation
B. How human characteristics influence current events
1. Population distribution
2. Geographic patterns of ethnic diversity
3. A sense of place (emotional attachment to specific locations)
4. Geographic patterns of trade and interdependence (e.g., oil)
5. Geographic patterns of wealth and poverty (developed and developing nations)
Economic Geography
I. Levels of economic activity.
A. Primary - dealing directly with natural resources (fishing, farming, forestry, mining)
B. Secondary - manufacturing and processing (steel mills, automobile assembly, sawmills)
C. Tertiary - services (transportation, retail trade, informational technology services)
II. Resources are not distributed equally. Effects include ...
A. Interdependence of nations; trade in goods, services, and capital resources
B. Uneven economic development
C. Energy producers and consumers
D. Imperialism
E. Conflict over control of resources
III. The location of resources influences economic activity and patterns of land use.
A. Proximity of economic activity and natural resources
1. Coal and steel
2. Grain and cattle
3. Ocean and fishing
4. Hydroelectric power and aluminum smelting
B. Non-proximity of resources to economic activity
1. Japan - limited natural resources but a major manufacturing region
2. United Arab Emirates (UAE) - oil but a lack of industry
IV. Levels of economic development vary from country to country and from place to place within countries.
Differences between developed and developing countries include ...
A. Access to natural resources
B. Access to capital resources (investment in technology and infrastructure)
C. Numbers and skills of human resources
D. Levels of economic development
E. Standards of living and quality of life
F. Relationships between economic development and quality of life
V. Many criteria are used to assess the standard of living and quality of life. Indicators include ...
A. Population growth rate (natural increase)
B. Population age distribution
C. Literacy rate
D. Life expectancy
E. Infant mortality
F. Percentage of urban population
VI. Resources and technology influence economic development and quality of life. Indicators of economic
development include ...
A. Urban/rural ratio
B. Labor force characteristics (primary, secondary, and tertiary sectors)
C. Per capita GDP
D. Educational achievement
VII. Resources are not equally distributed.
VIII. Economic activities are influenced by availability of resources, cultural values, economic philosophies, and
levels of supply and demand for goods and services.
A. Access to human, natural and capital resources
1. Skills of the work force
2. Natural resources
3. Access to new technologies
4. Transportation and communication networks
5. Availability of investment capital
B. Location and ability to exchange goods
1. Landlocked countries
2. Coastal and island countries
3. Proximity to shipping lanes
4. Access to communication networks
C. Membership in political and economic alliances that provide access to markets - e.g., European Union (EU),
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
IX. Comparative advantage: countries will export goods and services that they can produce at lower relative costs
than other countries.
X. Resources are not distributed equally. Effects include ...
A. Specialization in goods and services that a country can market for profit
B. Exchange of goods and services (exporting what a country can market for profit; importing what a country cannot
produce profitably)
XI. No country has all the resources it needs to survive and grow.
XII. Nations participate in those economic activities compatible with their human, natural, and capital resources.
Some countries’ use of resources include ...
A. Japan - highly industrial nation despite limited natural resources
B. Russia - numerous resources, many of which are not economically profitable to develop
C. United States - diversified economy, abundant natural resources, specialized industries
D. Cote d’Ivoire - limited natural resources, cash crops in exchange for manufactured goods
E. Switzerland - limited natural resources, production of services on a global scale
XIII. International trade fosters interdependence.
A. Reasons why countries engage in trade include ...
1. To import goods and services that they need
2. To export goods and services that they can market for profit
B. Effects of comparative advantage on international trade include ...
1. Enables nations to produce goods and services that they can market for profit
2. Influences the development of industries (e.g., steel, aircraft, automobile, clothing)
3. Supports specialization and efficient use of human resources
XIV. Economic, social, and therefore spatial relationships change over time. Changes include ...
A. Industrial labor system (e.g., cottage industry, factory, office, telecommunications)
B. Migration from rural to urban areas
C. Industrialized countries export labor-intensive work to developing nations
D. Growth of trade alliances
E. Growth of service (tertiary) industries
F. Growth of financial services networks and international banks
G. Internationalization of product assembly (e.g., vehicles, electronic equipment)
H. Technology that allows instant communication among people in different countries
I. Modern transportation networks that allow rapid and efficient exchange of goods and services (e.g., Federal
Express, United Parcel Service, US Postal Service)
J. Widespread marketing of products (e.g., Fuji film, Nike, United Colors of Benetton)
XV. Improvements in transportation and communication have promoted globalization.
XVI. As a global society, the world is increasingly interdependent.
XVII. Economic interdependence fosters the formation of economic unions.
A. Examples of economic unions
1. EU - European Union
2. NAFTA - North American Free Trade Agreement
3. ASEAN - Association of Southeast Asian Nations
4. OPEC - Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
B. Advantages of economic unions
1. More efficient industries
2. Access to larger markets
3. Access to natural, human, and capital resources without restrictions
4. Greater influence on world market
C. Disadvantages of economic unions
1. Closing of some industries
2. Concentration of some industries in certain countries, leaving peripheral areas behind
3. Agribusiness replacing family farms
4. Difficulty in agreeing on common economic policies