Download The Development of the Roman Army

The Development of the
Roman Army
The Most important Stages of
development
1 the Monarchy
2 The Republic
The Earliest Infantry and Cavalry
The Regal Period
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traditions about origins vary among ancient authors; we
have little information about origins of the infantry;
Sources suggest that structure of early Roman army
linked to the original three tribes founded by Romulus
Multiples of three in later Roman military formation
points to this original division
The earliest regal army
“[They are called] soldiers [milites]
because at first the legion was composed
of 3,000 men, the individual tribes of the
Titenses, Ramnes and Luceres each
contributing 1,000 soldiers.”
 (Varro, on the Latin Language 5.89.1)
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“After Romulus had founded the city, he
divided up those capable of bearing arms
into military units. Each unit consisted of
3,000 infantry and 300 cavalry. The unit is
called a legion because the men selected
were chosen for their warlike character
from the entire population.” (Plutarch, Romulus
13.1)
The early Roman cavalry
We have more information in our sources on the
cavalry than for the infantry;
 Association of horses in battle with the elite in
the Mediterranean world; wealth and property
required to raise horses
 Not clear when Romans began to fight from
horseback; Most likely this began around 600
BCE in Etruria as consequence of Greek
influence
 In accounts of early Roman battles the cavalry
dismounts to engage in fighting
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The origins of the Roman cavalry
according to Livy
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At the same time [when the wars against
the Sabines were concluded], [Romulus]
enrolled three centuries of horses. One
was named Ramnenses after Romulus, the
second was called Titienses after Titus
Tatius and the last was known as the
Luceres. However, the origin and name of
the last is uncertain.” (Livy 1.13.8)
The Origins of the Roman cavalry
according to Dionysius of Halicarnassus’
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“ After Romulus had established the Senate from one hundred men,
he saw that he had need of a formation as a guard for his own
person and for service in pressing matters. He chose 300 men from
the most distinguished families who were the most physically fit.
The curiae selected them as they had done the senators; each curia
chose ten men and Romulus constantly kept them around his
person. They were called celeres, a name given them according to
the majority of writers because of their speed in carrying out their
tasks. However, Valerius Antias claims that they were so called
because that was the name of their commander. This leader (Celer)
was an extremely distinguished man, who had three centurions
under him. In the city they followed Romulus about and executed
his orders, and on campaigns they were in the vanguard and the
king’s companion in arms. They fought on horseback in suitable
terrain and on foot where the ground was rough and unfit for
cavalry.” (Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 2.13)
The Servian Reform
(6th century BCE)
Reform linked to adoption of Greek
phalanx
 Greek Hoplite soldier
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The Greek hoplite phalanx
Reflected social organization
 (at democratic Athens – equality)
 Benefits: close formation served as powerful force on
flat terrain – worked like a tank
 Main striking power dependent on heavy thrusting spear
and momentum of charge to defeat enemy
 Shortcomings: too inflexible on rough terrain
 Spartans and Macedonian Phalanx more flexible: had
units fighting with different armor and different ways
 Sources do not tell us what formation the Romans
adopted, but division into classes suggests that Roman
phalanx was perhaps more flexible than the Greek
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The 6th century warrior
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Sources limited about equipment
Chest protector = kardiophylax (a disk of bronze
17-35 cm in diameter attached by straps or
metal band over shoulder attached to back plate
Shield, probably wood or hide (non survived)
Spearheads of iron’
Evidence of thrusting spears and javelins
Sword of iron, like Greek hoplite swords (short –
widened towards its point)
Italian sword – two-sided blade
Greek Phalanx formation
Chigi Vase
Hoplite phalanx
Alexander and Darius
Polybius on the Greek Phalanx
Histories 18.28-32
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Many considerations may easily convince us that, if only the phalanx has its
proper formation and strength, nothing can resist it face to face or
withstand its charge. For as a man in close order of battle occupies a space
of three feet; and as the length of the sarissae are sixteen cubits according
to the original design, which has been reduced in practice to fourteen; and
as of these fourteen four must be deducted, to allow for the weight in front;
it follows clearly that each hoplite will have ten cubits of his sarissa
projecting beyond his body, when he lowers it with both hands, as he
advances against the enemy: hence, too, though the men of the second,
third, and fourth rank will have their sarissae projecting farther beyond the
front rank than the men of the fifth, yet even these last will have two cubits
of their sarissae beyond the front rank; if only the phalanx is properly
formed and the men close up properly both flank and rear, like the
description in Homer:
So buckler pressed on buckler; helm on helm; And man on man; and
waving horse-hair plumes In polished head-piece mingled, as they swayed
In order: in such serried rank they stood. [Iliad, 13.131]
Organization of the Early Roman
Army (after Servian Reform)
Drawn from 5 (property) classes below the equestrians
 Armor and equipment according to what they could
afford: Class 1 round shield, cuirass, greaves, spear,
sword
 Class 2 no cuirass
 Class 3 no cuirass, no greaves
 Class 4 only spear and shield
 Class 5 sling shots
 Below Class 5: capite censi (no wealth) not eligible for
military service except in certain emergency
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Servian Reform
Further division into centuries of 1.
seniores (over age 46) for defense of city
 2. juniores (age 17-45) went to war
 Voted in assembly – Comitia Curiata by
century
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Changes in the Roman
Republic
Change to Maniples
Change to Maniples in 4th century BCE
 Perhaps in response to fighting with Cisalpine
Celts/Gauls, but not clear; Romans defeated in 387 by
Gauls, probably raiding bands of warriors, interested in
loot
 Gauls fought in flexible open units
 Development took place over long period, stages of
development already obscure to Romans by 200 BCE
 By 400 BCE Romans fought at various fronts; much more
bellicose and expansive than in earlier periods
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Maniple: etymology
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“Their standards were of hay, but there
was as deep a reverence as the eagles
now possess. They carried these
suspended in bundles [manipulos] on a
long pole and it is for this reason that the
soldier is called a manipularis. Ovid, Fasti 115-117
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Maniples are the smallest military units that
follow a single military standard. Varro, On the Latin
Language 5.88
Surpassing the enemy at their own
game
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The Romans as pupils always surpassed their
teachers. In ancient times they used rectangular
shields. The Etruscans who fought in a phalanx
with round bronze shields forced the Romans to
adopt their equipment and as a consequence
were defeated by them. Later again, peoples
using the same shields as the Romans now do
and fighting in maniples were conquered by
those same Romans who had imitated these
excellent methods of fighting and of arming
themselves. Diodorus Siculus, 23.2.1.
The Maniple
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The single phalanx formation replaced by
number of small phalanx-like units – maniples
Arranged in 3 lines; in each line spaces separate
each unit which allowed for independence
Romans now fought by deploying lines
successively instead of all at once
Resulted in much greater flexibility;
Accompanied by new equipment: short sword,
large oval/rectangular shield – replacing heavy
thrusting spear and round hoplite shield
The Fourth Century Army
Increased from 1 to 2 Legions
 Each legion in 3 battle lines
 1. Line: 15 maniples of hastati (heavy infantry of
juniores, plus 20 light-armed soldiers (leves) with spear
and light javelin
 2. Line: 15 maniples of principes (older and more
experienced)
 3. Line: 1. veterans (triarii) 2 less experienced rorarii, 3
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accensi
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Later added? velites- the youngest of the recruits
The Republican Soldiers
1. Roman citizens: cives qui arma ferre
possunt = citizens who are able to bear
arms; based on census qualifications;
 Length of service 16 seasons, not
necessarily consecutive; between ages 1746
 509-384 BCE – often not enough men
available for levy - due to pestilence
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Republican changes
Changes in levy
Changes in conditions of service
 Introduction of pay (not a wage but a compensation for
the service)
 Tributum – military tax – changed views of how to pay
for military expenses
 State provided military equipment as property
requirements reduced to increase available soldiers
 Shift of levy away from Servian census qualifications
became based on tribes citizens were enrolled in
 Important bond that had bound the military century
(original division) in its political aspect to its military
 Contributed to social and political unrest and changes
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The Republican Levy according to
Livy 6.19.5-21
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When the consuls in office wish to hold a levy they announce to the
people that day on which all men of military age must assemble. His
is done each year. On the appointed day, when those fit for service
have arrived in Rome and after they have assembled on the
Capitoline, the more junior tribunes divide themselves up in the
order in which they were elected or appointed by the consuls into
four groups, because the primary division of their force is into four
parts. They assign the four tribunes elected first to the first legion,
the next three to the second, the following four to the third and the
last three to the fourth legion. The first two senior tribunes are
assigned to the first legion, the next three to the second. Then two
are assigned to the third and the last three to the fourth. Such is the
division and assignment of the tribunes that each legion has the
same number of tribunes
Livy continued
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After this, the tribunes have separated and been
grouped according to the legion to which they are
assigned. They summon the tribes one by one according
to lot. From the first tribe they select four young men as
like each other as possible in age and physical condition.
The four are brought forward and the tribunes of the
first legion select one of them, then those of the second
legion choose the next, …etc. So with this rotation of
choice it results that the men in each legion are
approximately the same. They continue until they reach
the required number of men, that is 4,200, sometimes
5,000, when the situation is especially serious. They
used to choose the cavalry last; now they do it first, and
the selection is now done by the censor on the basis of
wealth, with 300 assigned to each legion.
The allied Soldiers
Alae Sociorum (troops of the allies) Latins
and Italians;
 Usually same numbers as the Roman
legions; allied cavalry three times larger
 Allied troops commanded by Roman
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praefecti sociorum
The First Century CE
changes by Gaius Marius; Marius’ Mules
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First to recruit capite censi (landless not eligible for military service) for his
African Campaign in 106 BCE
Opened option of semi-professional army
Became standard after this (census levy continued at least to the 40s BCE)
Capite censi only recruited previously during emergencies
Changed formation from manipular to cohorts
Previously used in 2nd Punic War (made up of 3 maniples) on temporary
basis
Characteristic of cohort: uniform equipment and training
Simplified command structure
Only 10 cohorts (10 officers) carried equipment and rations for several
days; increased mobility, self-sufficiency,
We do not know the exact details of new formation and command structure
Marius responsible for cultivating strong identity of individual legions
The cohort
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[Scipio] taking the three leading turmae of
cavalry, and placing in front of them the usual
number of velites and three maniples – the
Romans call this a cohort – from his right wing,
while Marcius and Junius took the same units
from the left, he advanced straight against the
enemy, wheeling his men to the left while
Marcius and Junius wheeled their troops to the
right. The units immediately follwin gthem
wheeled in turn. (Polybius, Histories 11.23.1-2)
Marius’ volunteers
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“[Marius] enrolled soldiers, not according to the
classes in the manner of our forefathers, but
allowing anyone to volunteer, for the most part
of the proletariat. Some say that he did this
through lack of good men, others because of a
desire to curry favor, since that class had given
him honor and rank. As a matter of fact, to one
who aspires to power the poorest man is the
most helpful, since he has no regard for his
property, having none, and considers anything
honorable for which he receives pay.” (Sallus, The
War with Jugurtha 86.2-3)
Consequences of the Civil Wars
example of the Fimbrians
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Tendency of armies to changed loyalty from state to individual successful generals;
disintegration of armies
i.e. consul Quintus Pompeius when instructed by Senate to take command of army,
was murdered by a group of hostile soldiers the moment he began to take over his
duties (Plutarch, Life of Sulla)
i.e. The so-called Fimbriani: men commanded by L. Valerius Flaccus in 86 BC
switched allegiance to Gaius Flavius Fimbria after Fimbria murdered their
commander.Fimbria had been sent from Rome as Flaccus’ legate, but Fimbria had
conflict with him, since he was unwilling to use any means to defeat cities loyal to
Mithridates and did not allow the indiscriminate pillage of the Greek city states. When
Sulla, the enemy of Fimbria emerged as winner against Mithridates marched against
Fimbria, legions abandoned their commander in his tent and swore allegiance to
Sulla. Frimbria committed suicide
In the 70s the Fimbriani under commander Lucius Lucullus – they abandoned him in
67 BC for Pompeius Magnus – very treacherous.
Goal of soldiers began to be twofold: associated with winner, receive highest
economic benefits: Plunder, loot, pillaging
When 10,000 of Marius men did in a clash, 6,000 survivors deserted, rest of army
disintegrated - loyalty was cheap
The impact of the Social War
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Grant of citizenship to Italian allies; Alae
Sociorum disappeared
troops recruited from native people at the
frontiers and in provinces
Germans, Numidians, Gauls – cavalry
Archers from Crete
Slingers from the Balkans
Caesar used Gauls who fought under their own
leaders
Allied troops not organized in standard units;
that followed under the principate …