Download Chapter 12: Development

DEVELOPMENT
LECTURE OPENER SUGGESTIONS:
Opening quotes:
“One man in his time plays many parts, his acts being seven ages” Shakespeare (Jacques in As
You Like It)
“There is in every child at every stage a new miracle of vigorous unfolding…” Erik Erikson
(1902-1994)
“. . . too many people, when they get old, think that they have to live by the calendar.” John
Glenn, age 78
Opening art works:
Berthe Morisot (1830-1895) Le Berceau (1872)
Auguste Renoir (1830-1919) A Girl With a Watering Can (1876)
Rembrandt Van Rijn (1606-1669) Self-Portrait 1629, Self-Portrait 1669
OPENING THEMES
Developmental psychology is increasingly becoming a psychology of the life span rather than a
psychology of children. This unit takes a life-span approach, covering “cradle to grave.” Themes
to emphasize in the lectures based on these modules are the biopsychosocial nature of
development (i.e., that development occurs in multiple domains) and that development occurs in
a number of directions (i.e., not simply a trajectory of growth and decline). Although the last
topic in the unit is death and dying, another possibility to consider is ending with the topic of
“successful aging.” Lecture ideas below contain suggestions for material to include on this topic.
KEY CONCEPTS
 Nature vs. nurture
 Basics of genetics
 Prenatal development
 Infant development
 Social development and parenting styles
 Piaget’s theory—stages and characteristics
 Information processing approach
 Vygotsky’s theory of the effect of culture
 Erikson’s theory—principles and stages
 Physical changes in adolescence
 Kohlberg’s and Gilligan’s theories
 Physical development in midlife
 Personality and social changes in mid-life
 Physical changes in later adulthood
 Cognitive changes in later adulthood
 Theories of aging and society
 Death and dying
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Prologue: The One-Pound Wonder
Looking Ahead
MODULE 27: NATURE, NURTURE, AND PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Determining the Relative Influence of Nature and Nurture
Specific Research Approaches
Prenatal Development: From Conception to Birth
The Basics of Genetics
The Earliest Development
Genetic Influences on the Fetus
Prenatal Environmental Influences
How do psychologists study the influences of heredity and environmental factors in
development?
What is the nature of development prior to birth?
What factors affect a child during the mother’s pregnancy?
Applying Psychology in the 21st Century Cloning, Gene Therapy, and the Coming Medical
Revolution
Learning Objectives:
27-1 Define developmental psychology and discuss various topics of study within the field,
especially the influence of nature and nurture on human development.
27-2 Distinguish among cross-sectional, longitudinal, and cross-sequential research methods.
27-3 Describe the major events that occur from conception to birth.
27-4 Discuss genetic abnormalities and environmental influences that affect prenatal
development.
Student Assignments:
Interactivity 48: Nature/Nuture (Twins)
Students answer questions about the study of identical twins as a means of gaining insight into
the contributions of heredity and the environment to development.
Interactivity 49: Influences on Prenatal Development
Students complete questions concerning genetic and environmental effects on the fetus.
Influences on the Fetus
Have students complete Handout 9-1, prenatal influences.
Harmful Environmental Effects on Prenatal Development
Have students conduct an online search for answers to these questions:
1. What are three harmful maternal behaviors that can affect the developing child?
2. What suggestions do health researchers have for lowering risks to the developing child of
harmful maternal behaviors?
3. If you were a health educator, how would you help pregnant women lower the risks of
harmful behaviors that might affect their unborn children?
Web Site on Developmental Psychology
Send students to the activity on this web site:
http://www.learner.org/discoveringpsychology/development/dev_flash.html
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PowerWeb: Prenatal Development
“Fetal Psychology,” Janet L. Hopson, Psychology Today, September/October 1998.
Birth is a significant occasion, but it is only one milestone in a series of important developmental
events, many of which precede birth. Janet Hopson reviews the latest finding on just how
fascinating and significant fetal life is.
Lecture Ideas:
Developmental Psychology as Life-Span Development
Explain that developmental psychology examines development throughout life, not just in
childhood. Development is understood as a life-span process that is complex and
multidirectional.
Nature and Nurture
Point out that the debate of nature vs. nurture is now nature AND nurture—the question is how
much these factors interact in development.
Twin Studies
Explain that studies of identical twins raised in different environments allow us to compare the
relative effects of nature and nurture. The following methods are used:
Monozygotic (identical) twins raised in the same environment are compared to:


Monozygotic twins adopted by different parents and raised in different environments. Since
they share genetic endowment, any differences between them must be due to the
environment.
Dizygotic twins raised in same environment. Differences between them must reflect genetics.
The heritability index is used to calculate effect of genetics on a behavior:
Correlation between
dizygotic twins
Correlation between
monozygotic twins
Developmental Research Designs
Show this chart:
Year of
birth
1920
1930
1940
1970
50 years
40 years
30 years
Year of Test
1980
1990
60 years
70 years
50 years
60 years
40 years
50 years
2000
80 years
70 years
60 years
These are the designs:
Cross-sectional = compare all age-groups at one year of test (vertical columns of table)
Longitudinal = follow one cohort across all years of test (horizontal rows of table)
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Sequential = perform two longitudinal or two cross-sectional studies
Genetics
Lecture on this topic can be developed around the overheads shown below. If you need to update
your knowledge of this area, this web site contains an excellent primer on genetics:
http://press2.nci.nih.gov/sciencebehind/genetesting/genetesting01.htm
Influences on the Fetus
Summarize the genetic and environmental influences, indicating their effects on the development
of the fetus and whether they can be prevented or not. Below is detailed information to use as a
background for describing these influences:
Genetic Factors:
Phenylketonuria (PKU): The absence or deficiency of an enzyme that is responsible for
processing the essential amino acid phenylalanine characterizes PKU. With normal enzymatic
activity, phenylalanine is converted to another amino acid (tyrosine), which is then utilized by
the body. However, when the phenylalanine hydroxylase enzyme is absent or deficient,
phenylalanine abnormally accumulates in the blood and is toxic to brain tissue. This condition is
detectable during the first days of life with appropriate screening through a simple blood test.
Without treatment, most infants with PKU develop mental retardation and may also develop
additional neurologic symptoms.
Sickle-cell anemia (SCA): SCA is the most common inherited blood disorder in the United
States, affecting about 72,000 Americans and 1 in 500 African Americans. SCA is characterized
by episodes of pain, chronic hemolytic anemia, and severe infections, usually beginning in early
childhood.
SCA is an autosomal recessive disease caused by a point mutation in the hemoglobin beta
gene (HBB) found on chromosome 11p15.4. Carrier frequency of HBB varies significantly
around the world, with high rates associated with zones of high malaria incidence, since carriers
are somewhat protected against malaria. About 8% of the African American population are
carriers. A mutation in HBB results in the production of a structurally abnormal hemoglobin (Hb)
called HbS. Hb is an oxygen-carrying protein that gives red blood cells (RBCs) their
characteristic color. Under certain conditions, like low oxygen levels or high hemoglobin
concentrations in individuals who are homozygous for HbS, the abnormal HbS clusters together,
distorting the RBCs into sickle shapes. These deformed and rigid RBCs become trapped within
small blood vessels and block them, producing pain and eventually damaging organs.
Though, as yet, there is no cure for SCA, a combination of fluids, painkillers, antibiotics
and transfusions are used to treat symptoms and complications. Hydroxyurea, an antitumor drug,
has been shown to be effective in preventing painful crises. Hydroxyurea induces the formation
of fetal Hb (HbF)—a Hb normally found in the fetus or newborn—which, when present in
individuals with SCA, prevents sickling. A mouse model of SCA has been developed and is
being used to evaluate the effectiveness of potential new therapies for SCA
(http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowSection&rid=gnd.section.98).
Tay-Sachs disease: Named for Warren Tay (1843-1927), a British ophthalmologist who in 1881
described a patient with a cherry-red spot on the retina of the eye. It is also named for Bernard
Sachs (1858-1944), a New York neurologist whose work several years later provided the first
description of the cellular changes in Tay-Sachs disease. Sachs also recognized the familial
nature of the disorder, and, by observing numerous cases, he noted that most babies with Tay130
Sachs disease were of eastern European Jewish origin. Tay-Sachs disease is caused by the
absence of a vital enzyme called hexosaminidase A (Hex-A). Without Hex-A, a fatty substance
or lipid called GM2 ganglioside accumulates abnormally in cells, especially in the nerve cells of
the brain. This ongoing accumulation causes progressive damage to the cells. The destructive
process begins in the fetus early in pregnancy, although the disease is not clinically apparent
until the child is several months old. By the time a child with TSD is three or four years old, the
nervous system is so badly affected that life itself cannot be supported. Even with the best of
care, all children with classical TSD die early in childhood, usually by the age of five.
A baby with Tay-Sachs disease appears normal at birth and seems to develop normally
until about six months of age. The first signs of TSD can vary and are evident at different ages in
affected children. Initially, development slows, there is a loss of peripheral vision, and the child
exhibits an abnormal startle response. By about two years of age, most children experience
recurrent seizures and diminishing mental function. The infant gradually regresses, losing skills
one by one, and is eventually unable to crawl, turn over, sit, or reach out. Other symptoms
include increasing loss of coordination, progressive inability to swallow and breathing
difficulties. Eventually, the child becomes blind, mentally retarded, paralyzed, and nonresponsive to his or her environment.
Down syndrome: Named after John Langdon Down, the first physician to identify the syndrome,
Down syndrome is the most frequent genetic cause of mild to moderate mental retardation and
associated medical problems and occurs in one out of 800 live births, in all races and economic
groups. Down syndrome is a chromosomal disorder caused by an error in cell division that
results in the presence of an additional third chromosome 21 or “trisomy 21.”
(http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/downsyndrome.html)
Environmental Factors (also called “teratogens”)
Rubella: About 25 percent of babies whose mothers contract rubella during the first trimester of
pregnancy are born with one or more birth defects which, together, are referred to as congenital
rubella syndrome. These birth defects include eye defects (resulting in vision loss or blindness),
hearing loss, heart defects, mental retardation and, less frequently, cerebral palsy. Many children
with congenital rubella syndrome are slow in learning to walk and to do simple tasks, though
some eventually catch up and do well. The infection frequently causes miscarriage and stillbirth.
The risk of congenital rubella syndrome drops to around one percent, after maternal infection in
the early weeks of the second trimester, and there is rarely any risk of birth defects when
maternal rubella occurs after 20 weeks of pregnancy. Some infected babies have health problems
that aren’t lasting. They may be born with low birthweight (less than 5.5 pounds), or have
feeding problems, diarrhea, pneumonia, meningitis (inflammation around the brain) or anemia.
Red-purple spots may show up on their faces and bodies because of temporary blood
abnormalities that can result in a tendency to bleed easily. The liver and spleen may be enlarged.
Some infected babies appear normal at birth and during infancy. However, all babies whose
mothers had rubella during pregnancy should be monitored carefully because problems with
vision, hearing, learning and behavior may first become noticeable during childhood. Children
with congenital rubella syndrome also are at increased risk of diabetes, which may develop
during childhood or adulthood. (http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov/genpub/topics/rubellaccae.html#What%20Risks%20Does%20Rubella%20Pose%20for%20the%20Fetus)
Fetal alcohol syndrome: Alcohol consumption during pregnancy—when it results in fetal
alcohol syndrome—has emerged as one of the leading causes of mental retardation.
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This illustration shows the parts of the brain affected by maternal alcohol consumption:
http://www.niaaa.nih.gov/gallery/fetal/mattson.htm
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/default.htm
Other drugs of abuse: Up-to-date information on the effects of prenatal exposure to cocaine,
MDMA (“ecstasy”), methamphetamine, and heroin can be found on the National Institutes of
Health Medline Plus web site:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/pregnancyandsubstanceabuse.html
Media Presentation Ideas:
Media Resources DVD: Nature vs. Nurture: The Study of Twins (4:05)
This segment explores genetic and environmental contributions to intelligence and personality as
examined in twin studies.
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Genetics
Show this illustration of patterns of genetic inheritance:
Chromosomal Sex Determination
Show this illustration of sex determination:
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Show this simple diagram of a cell, showing DNA:
Prenatal Development
Show this overhead of the stages of prenatal development:
Fertilization occurs
Zygote implants itself in the lining of the uterus
Rapid cell division occurs
Embryonic stage lasts from 2 weeks to 8 weeks
Cells differentiate into three distinct layers: the
ectoderm, the mesoderm, and the endoderm
Nervous system begins to develop
Embryo is 1/2 inch long
Heart and blood vessels form
SECOND
Head area develops rapidly
MONTH:
Eyes begin to form detail
Internal organs grow, especially the digestive system
Sex organs develop rapidly and sex is distinguished
Arms and legs form and grow
Heart begins to beat faintly
Embryo is 1 inch long and weighs 1/10 ounce
Head growth occurs rapidly
THIRD
Bone formation begins to form rapidly
MONTH:
The digestive organs begin to function
Arms, legs, and fingers make spontaneous movements
Fetus is 3 inches long and weighs 1 ounce
FOURTH
MONTH:
FIFTH
MONTH:
Lower parts of the body show rapid growth
Bones are distinct in x-ray films
Reflex movement becomes more active
Heartbeat detected by physician
Sex organs are fully formed
Fetus is 7 inches long and weighs 5 ounces
Mother begins to feel reflex movements
A fine, downy fuzz covers the entire body
Vernix (a waxy coating) collects over the body
Ears and nose begin to develop cartilage
Fingernails and toenails begin to appear
Fetus shows hiccups, thumb sucking, and kicking
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Fetus is 12 inches long and weight 14 ounces
SIXTH
MONTH:
Eyes and eyelids fully formed
Fat is developing under the skin
Fetus is 14 inches long and weighs 2 pounds
SEVENTH
MONTH:
Cerebral cortex of brain develops rapidly
Fetus is 17 inches long and weighs 3 pounds
EIGHTH
MONTH:
Subcutaneous fat is deposited for later use
Fingernails reach beyond the fingertips
Fetus is 17 inches long and weighs 5 pounds
NINTH
MONTH:
Hair covering the entire body is shed
Organ systems function actively
Vernix is present over the entire body
Fetus settles into position for birth
Neonate is 21 inches long and weighs 7 pounds
Pictures of Prenatal Development
Show these pictures and captions:
Sperm Penetrating Egg
A sperm spends several hours in the female reproductive tract undergoing a process called
capacitation, which enables it to penetrate an egg. Here we see a sperm approaching an egg.
Although several hundred sperm reach an egg, only one penetrates it. The egg then produces a
hard protein covering to prevent penetration by another sperm.
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6-Week-Old Embryo (Rear View)
At 6 weeks, the embryo is just over half an inch long. As shown in this photograph, the arms and
legs are just beginning to grow, and the head area is extremely large compared to its size after
birth. The embryo is shown here in the amniotic sac, which is filled with fluid to protect it.
4½-Month-Old Fetus Sucking Thumb
At about 4½ months of prenatal development, the fetus is about 10 inches long and weighs
approximately 9 ounces. As shown in this photograph, the fetus shows the reflexive movement
of sucking its thumb. This activity appears remarkably similar to thumb-sucking in neonates.
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MODULE 28: INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
The Extraordinary Newborn
Reflexes
Development of the Senses: Taking in the World
The Growing Child: Infancy through Middle Childhood
Physical Development
Development of Social Behavior: Taking on the World
Measuring Attachment
The Father’s Role
Social Relationships with Peers
The consequences of day care
Parenting styles and social development
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
Cognitive development: Children’s thinking about the world
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
Information processing approaches
Vygotsky’s view
What are the major competencies of newborns?
What are the milestones of physical and social development during childhood?
How does cognitive development proceed during childhood?
Applying Psychology in the 21st Century The Appearance of Deception: Can Nonverbal
Behavior Be Used to Reveal Terrorists?
Learning Objectives:
28-1 Describe the appearance and behavior of the neonate.
28-2 Discuss the sensory and perceptual capacities of newborn infants and their typical course
of development.
28-3 Describe the physical and social development of the infant and child, including
attachment issues, the role of the father, peer social relationships, and the influence of
day care.
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28-4
28-5
28-6
28-7
28-8
Describe the four parenting styles and their effect on children’s social development.
Outline and describe the first four psychosocial stages of development as identified by
Erik Erikson.
Outline and describe the cognitive developmental stages identified by Jean Piaget,
including criticisms of the stage approach.
Explain the information-processing approach to cognitive development, as well as Lev
Vygotsky’s sociocultural approach.
Discuss specific child-rearing practices that have been associated with maximizing
competence in children.
Student Assignments:
Interactivity 50: Piaget’s Conservation Concept
In this interactivity, students have the opportunity to test themselves on a variety of Piagetian
conservation tasks. Students learn Piaget’s stages of cognitive development by observing
children in the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operation stages.
The children will demonstrate phenomena including object permanence, egocentric thought, and
conservation.
InPsych CD: Secure Attachment
Have students complete this activity on the InPsych CD, which demonstrates attachment styles.
Theories of Cognitive Development (Piaget, Information Processing, Vygotsky)
Ask students the following questions:
1. Which theory of cognitive development do you most agree with? Why?
2. How does each theory of cognitive development treat the role of social and cultural
factors. Which theory gives the most emphasis to culture?
3. If you were a teacher, how would you apply each of the three theories of cognitive
development?
Piaget’s Theory: Conservation
Have students complete Handout 9-2 on everyday examples of conservation.
Effects of Day Care
Using online resources, including PsycLit, have students answer the following questions:
1. What are the long-term, if any, effects of day care on child development? Be sure to
consider both positive and negative effects.
2. How can parents minimize any harmful effects of day care on their children?
3. What features should parents seek in day care for their children?
Lecture Ideas:
Much of the material in this unit is self-explanatory and students can read about the facts
regarding infant development on their own. More interesting and helpful is to focus the lecture
on the theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, and the work of Ainsworth and Baumrind.
Jean Piaget Biography (from Pettijohn’s Connectext)
Jean Piaget was born in Neuchâtel, Switzerland, in 1896. His father was a professor of medieval
literature. As a child, he became absorbed in philosophy and zoology, and wrote his first
scientific article on the albino sparrow at the age of ten. After graduating from the University of
Neuchâtel in 1918 with a degree in zoology, he turned to psychology, going to Zurich to pursue
his studies. There he met Theodore Simon, who invited him to work on the development of
intelligence in a grade school in Paris.
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Trained as a zoologist, Piaget had the skills necessary to begin observing children. He
found that children make certain types of errors when solving problems, depending upon their
age. He concluded that their thinking is qualitatively different than adults’, and thus it was
important to understand children from their own viewpoint.
Because of his extensive work studying the development of intelligence he has had an
important impact on developmental psychology. He believed that cognitive development
occurred because of the child’s unsatisfactory experiences in solving problems. His observations
led him to develop his famous theory of cognitive development.
Piaget was a prolific writer and produced numerous books and articles. He continued to
teach and write until his death at 84 in 1980.
Mary Salter Ainsworth Biography (from Pettijohn’s Connectext)
Mary Ainsworth was born in December 1913 in Glendale, Ohio. She attended the University of
Toronto, where she earned her BA in 1935, her MA in 1936, and her PhD in developmental
psychology in 1939.
Ainsworth joined the Canadian Army, where she reached the rank of Major in 1945.
After the army, she taught at the University of Toronto. Her interests in attachment led her to
Uganda, where she was a Senior Research Fellow at the East African Institute for Social
Research. Here she was able to study cultural differences in attachment formation in infants.
After several other academic positions, she settled at the University of Virginia in 1974,
where she remained the rest of her academic career. Ainsworth has received many honors,
including the Award for Distinguished Contributions to Child Development in 1985 and the
Distinguished Scientific Contribution Award from the APA in 1989.
She wrote numerous books and articles, including Child Care and the Growth of Love
(1965, with John Bowlby, London: Penguin), Infancy in Uganda (1967, Baltimore: John
Hopkins), and Patterns of Attachment (1978, with M. Blehar, E. Waters, & S. Wall, Hillsdale,
NJ: Erlbaum).
One of her important contributions to psychology was her research on early emotional
attachment. Her “strange situation” room that infants are placed in during attachment testing is a
standard procedure.
Basics of Vygotsky’s Theory
Concepts to emphasize in Vygotsky’s theory are:
 Focus on social processes in development
 Zone of proximal development—area of knowledge just beyond a child’s abilities;
according to Vygotsky, children learn best when they encounter information at this level.
 Scaffolding—adults and teachers present the kind of support for learning (within the
ZPD) that enables them to work independently but with help so that they can both solve
problems and develop their cognitive abilities more generally.
Class Demonstration: Conservation
This activity is designed to show students that the ability to understand reversibility (in
conservation) is not necessarily established by the age of 8. For this activity, you will need to
bring into class a set of items in pairs that are the same or similar in amount but are different in
their configuration. For example:
2 perfume bottles with the same amount of perfume but in different shaped bottles
2 pasta boxes of 1 pound each, one long and thin (Spaghetti) and one wide and short (Ziti)
2 cans of fruit, which are of different weights, but the smaller one actually weighs more.
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Then ask for a volunteer to judge whether they are the “same” or “different” amounts. Chances
are that the volunteer will make a few mistakes, demonstrating that conservation is not
necessarily established by the age of 8 and that even adults can be fooled!
Media Presentation Ideas:
Physical Development during Infancy
Show this chart of physical development, emphasizing the regularity across children in the order
of achieving these milestones.
Piaget’s Concept of Egocentrism
Show this figure demonstrating the concept of egocentrism:
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Conservation Summary
This chart presents the conservation tasks and the approximate ages at which they are passed:
Type of
Conservation
Modality
Change in
physical appearance
Average age
at which
invariance is
grasped
Number
6-7
Substance
7-8
Length
7-8
Area
8-9
Weight
9-10
Volume
14-15
Popular Movies: “Look Who’s Talking”
This movie depicts the world through an infant’s eyes.
MODULE 29: ADOLESCENCE: BECOMING AN ADULT
Physical Development: The Changing Adolescent
Moral and Cognitive Development: Distinguishing Right from Wrong
Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development
Moral Development in Women
Social Development: Finding Oneself in a Social World
Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development: The Search for Identity
Stormy Adolescence: Myth or Reality?
Adolescent suicide
What major physical, social, and cognitive transitions characterize adolescence?
Exploring Diversity Rites of Passage: Coming of Age Around the World
Learning Objectives:
29-1 Define adolescence, and describe the physical changes that mark its beginning.
29-2 Describe the moral and cognitive development that occurs during adolescence.
29-3 Identify and discuss Erikson’s psychosocial stages relevant to adolescence and adulthood.
29-4 Identify the major problems of adolescence, and discuss the problem of teenage suicide.
Student Assignments:
Interactivity 51: Risk Factors for Adolescent Suicide
Students are presented with scenarios that illustrate the demographic and behavioral risk factors
for adolescent suicide.
Interactivity 52: Moral Reasoning
In this interactivity, students rate according to Kohlberg’s stages six brief video vignettes of
answers to the “Heinz” dilemma.
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Moral Development
Give students the assignment on Handout 12-3 on moral development.
Interactivity: Erikson’s Theory
Have students complete this interactivity, which demonstrates the stages of Erikson’s theory and
has students apply these stages to examples.
InPsych CD: Formal Operations
Have students complete this activity which demonstrates formal operations in Piaget’s theory.
Website: Kohlberg “Game”
Assign students the activity on this web site:
http://www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch03/kohlberg.mhtml
Lecture ideas:
As noted above, rather than repeat what many students already know about adolescence, focus
on theories relevant to adolescence that may be more difficult for them to understand from their
reading.
Erikson’s Biography (from Pettijohn’s Connectext)
Erik Erikson was born on June 15, 1902, in Frankfurt, Germany. His parents were separated
before he was born, and his mother then married Theodor Homberger, the physician who cared
for Erik as a baby, and they raised him as Erik Homburger. As a young boy, Erikson experienced
some conflict because of his Jewish faith and his Danish appearance. This may have helped to
form his long-standing interest in identity as a research area.
Although his family encouraged him to study medicine, he preferred to develop his
talents as an artist. After graduating from art school, Erikson taught at a private school in Vienna.
He attended the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society where he met Anna Freud. Eventually, he moved
with his family to the United States. When he became a U.S. citizen in 1939 he changed his
name from Homburger to Erikson.
Erikson held positions at Harvard Medical School, Yale University, and several private
appointments prior to returning to Harvard University as a professor of human development. He
remained at Harvard until his retirement in 1970.
Among Erikson’s most influential books were Childhood and Society (2nd ed., 1963,
Norton) and Identity: Youth and Crisis (1968, Norton). Erikson continued to write until his death
in 1994.
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Chart of Erikson’s Stages
Show this chart, substituting the following ages for the psychodynamic terms on the side:
Ages
65+
30-65
21-30
12-21
6-12
3-6
18 m-3yr
0-18m
Erikson’s Theory of Identity
According to Erikson, identity is the major psychosocial issue of adolescence. Based on
Erikson’s theory, James Marcia proposed four types or statuses that characterize the identity vs.
identity diffusion stage. In addition to the polar opposites of identity achieved vs. identity
diffuse, Marcia proposed that many adolescents achieve an identity without going through a
crisis. He referred to this as “foreclosed.” Another possibility is that adolescents remained in a
prolonged state of crisis, called “moratorium.” Students can be asked these questions, which will
give them an idea of which type they are:
Have you chosen a college major?
What led you to that decision?
Did you consider any alternatives?
If you have not chosen a college major, what are you doing to help you decide?
Identity Achievement: Have a major, considered alternatives before deciding on it.
Identity Diffuse: No college major, not particularly concerned about finding one.
Foreclosed: Decided on a college major without going through a period of questioning.
Moratorium: Trying to decide and very involved in trying to arrive at this decision.
Kohlberg’s Stages
Kohlberg developed his theory on the basis of interviews with adolescent boys. Starting with
Piaget’s theory, Kohlberg proposed that children’s moral judgments reflect their cognitive
abilities. They are able to see the relative pros and cons of different moral positions after they
pass the stage of concrete operations. Compared to Piaget’s theory, Kohlberg developed these
ideas in much more detail and, although there are controversies associated with both the theory
and the research on which it is based, Kohlberg’s theory provides a comprehensive framework
for understanding how we develop our sense of right and wrong.
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Media Presentation Ideas:
Chart of Kohlberg’s Stages
Website: Kohlberg “Game”
Show the activity on this web site and have students vote or contribute answers:
http://www.dushkin.com/connectext/psy/ch03/kohlberg.mhtml
Popular Movies: Adolescent Development
Many popular movies deal with the adolescent transition. One of the most recent is “Thirteen,”
which presents the adolescent period as one of “storm and stress.”
MODULE 30: ADULTHOOD
Physical Development: The Peak of Health
Social Development: Working at Life
Marriage, Children, and Divorce: Family Ties
Changing Roles of Men and Women: The Time of Their Lives
Women’s “second shift”
The Later Years of Life: Growing Old
Physical Changes in Late Adulthood: The Aging Body
Cognitive Changes: Thinking About—and During—Late Adulthood
Memory Changes in Late Adulthood: Are Older Adults Forgetful?
The Social World of Late Adulthood: Old But Not Alone
What are the principal kinds of physical, social, and intellectual changes that occur in
early and middle adulthood, and what are their causes?
How does the reality of late adulthood differ from the stereotypes about the period?
How can we adjust to death?
Becoming an Informed Consumer of Psychology Adjusting to Death
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Learning Objectives:
30-1 Define early and middle adulthood, and describe the physical changes that accompany it.
30-2 Discuss the concerns of adulthood that result from demands of society and the pressures
of work, marriage, and family.
30-3 Describe the roles of males and females in marriage and in the family, specifically as they
relate to the course of adult development.
30-4 Define old age, the physical changes that accompany it, and the theories that attempt to
account for it.
30-5 Identify the changes that occur in cognitive ability, intelligence, and memory during old
age.
30-6 Describe the challenges and changes faced by the elderly in regard to their social
involvement.
30-7 List and define Kübler-Ross’s five stages of adjustment to death.
Student Assignments:
Interactivity 53: Myths about Aging
Students answer questions concerning the myths vs. reality of the aging process.
Attitudes toward Aging
Have students complete the activity in Handout 9-4 on attitudes toward aging.
“Draw Your Life”
Have students complete a graph in which they put age and/or year on the horizontal plane and
then sketch out what they foresee as the major periods of their lives. Ask them to explain why
they believe these events will be happening to them and how they think they will react.
Death and Dying
Ask students the following questions:
1. How would you characterize our society’s attitudes toward death and dying?
2. Should terminally ill patients have the right to choose when to end their lives? Why or
why not?
3. What role can psychologists play in helping people adjust to death, both their own death
and the death of others close to them?
Lecture ideas:
Information on Marriage and the Family
This web site contains recent demographic information on changing trends in the American
family:
http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/hh-fam.html
Changing Demographics on Aging in the United States and the World
There is a wealth of data on aging in the United States. Some web sites to check are:
www.census.gov The complete U.S. Census web site—look for links on aging.
www.cdc.gov/nchs National Center for Health Statistics—some links on aging are listed here:
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/agingact.htm Contains comprehensive links to aging related
sites
http://www.cdc.gov/aging/ A specific site with links to other publications and data
sources
http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/ Includes aging in the larger issue of chronic disease
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Physical and Cognitive Functioning in Later Life
Discuss the roles of social attitudes toward aging on physical and cognitive functioning.
Emphasize the importance of findings that show that older adults will “lose it” if they do not
“use it.” The National Institute on Aging has published a number of helpful online reports and
articles on these topics: http://www.nia.nih.gov/publications/onlineonly.htm.
Successful Aging
Rather than end the lecture with death and dying, ending with the topic of “successful aging”
provides a more upbeat approach to looking at life-span development. The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention (CDC) publishes an excellent series on “Healthy Aging” that can form
the basis for this part of the lecture: http://www.cdc.gov/aging/
Grandparents and Grandchildren
In the past decade, there has been a large increase in the number of grandparents raising
grandchildren. This web site contains the 2000 report, downloadable photographs, and a
Quicktime video:
http://www.census.gov/pubinfo/www/multimedia/grandparents.html
Critique of Kübler-Ross
Point out that research does not support the five stages of dying as described by Kübler-Ross.
Instead, they are thought of as a general guideline; they are not necessarily found in all
terminally ill patients. The main contribution of her work was to highlight the fact that dying
patients need to be able to talk to others about what they are experiencing rather than to have
their needs dismissed or the reality of their dying ignored.
Current Issues in Death and Dying
Discuss these issues involved in death and dying:
Advance directives and living wills:
A health care advance directive is a document in which you give instructions about your health
care if, in the future, you cannot speak for yourself. You can give someone you name (your
“agent” or “proxy”) the power to make health care decisions for you. You also can give
instructions about the kind of health care you do or do not want.
Physician-assisted suicide:
Physician-assisted suicide refers to the physician providing the means for death, most often with
a prescription. The patient, not the physician, will ultimately administer the lethal medication.
Euthanasia generally means that the physician would act directly, for instance by giving a lethal
injection, to end the patient’s life.
End-of-life care:
Consult the APA web site on psychology and end-of-life care:
http://www.apa.org/pi/aseol/section3.html
Guidelines in Geropsychology
In 2003, APA passed a set of guidelines for psychologists specializing in gerontology. These
guidelines can be found in their entirety on this web site:
http://www.apa.org/practice/Guidelines_for_Psychological_Practice_with_Older_Adults.pdf
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Media Presentation Ideas:
Popular Movie: Mid-Life Crisis
To illustrate the mid-life crisis, show scene in “American Beauty” in which the main character
plays with his new “toy” of a remote controlled car. Ask the class why they think that the theme
of mid-life crisis has remained popular, such as in this movie, despite evidence suggesting that it
does not exist!
Popular Movies: Aging
Many movies can be used to illustrate emotional relationships in later life, including “On Golden
Pond,” and “Grumpy Old Men.” Other movies that have age-related themes include “Cocoon,”
“Driving Miss Daisy,” “Gladiator,” “Space Cowboys,” “Where’s Poppa?” and “Harold and
Maude.”
Popular Movies: Death and Dying
Death and dying is a topic relevant to many popular movies, including most of the above; in
addition, movies in which characters come back to life present an interesting perspective, such as
“The Sixth Sense,” “City of Angels,” “What Dreams May Come,” and “Ghost.”
Chart of Age-Related Changes in Intelligence
Show this chart (from Schaie et al., Seattle Longitudinal Study data)
Changing Demographics of Aging
Show this chart from the 2000 Census which illustrates the aging of the population from 19902000:
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Exercise in Later Life
The National Institute on Aging has a free online exercise video that can be shown in class:
http://www.niapublications.org/exercisevideo/index.asp.
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