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Timeline of Events Leading to the War Between the States
July 1776- Declaration of Independence. Thomas Jefferson, principal author of the document, declares that “all men
are created equal,” but he himself is a slave-owner.
1787 – At the 1787 Constitutional convention, delegates debated the clause regarding slavery. Southern States
vowed to ban the union without a concession regarding slave trade. 3/5 clause also passed by Congress, and the NW
Ordinance passed.
1794 – Eli Whitney patents the Cotton Gin, greatly increasing the production of cleaned cotton and increasing the
need and value of slaves in the cotton states.
1820 – Several new States have been added to the Union, the Missouri Compromise is negotiated to keep the
balance between the Free and Slave States, and a compromise is established.
1828 – Congress raises tariffs with the Tariff of Abominations, benefiting the North, damaging the Southern
economy.
1832 – Tariff Act of 1832 reduces duties; the South remains dissatisfied and threatens secession. South Carolina
organizes a State Army and declares the tariffs null and void.
1833 – Compromise Tariff Act passed and tensions reduced.
1834 – Slavery abolished throughout the British Empire
1836 – Congress passes a “gag rule” legislation that automatically tables any actions or petitions relating to slavery.
1845 – Former slave, Frederick Douglas, publishes his autobiography, becomes the talk of the North.
1850 – Compromise of 1850 allows California to join the Union as a Free State, New Mexico and Utah as no
restriction territories, slave trading abolished in D.C. Fugitive Slave Act is strengthened.
1852 – Publication of “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” by Harriet Beacher Stowe.
1854 – The Kansas-Nebraska Act passes Congress and overturns the Missouri Compromise.
1856 – Senator Charles Sumner attacks slavery with a speech in the Senate, singling out South Carolina Senator
Andew Butler. Two days later, Butler’s nephew attacks Sumner and beats him quite seriously – the House did not
expel or censure the perpetrator, who was a member of the House of Representatives.
1857 – Tariff Act of 1857 and Dred Scot Decision.
1859 – John Brown’s attack on Harper’s Ferry
1860 – Despite not being on the ballot in the Deep South, Abraham Lincoln elected president with 40% of the
popular vote and 59% of the Electoral College. South Carolina succeeds from the Union (December).
January 1861 – In January, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia and Louisiana secede from the Union. Senate
refuses to consider the Crittenden Compromise; diplomatic attempts to ease tension are unsuccessful.
February 1861 – Texas succeeds, Constitution of the Confederacy adopted, Jefferson Davis elected President of the
Confederacy.
March 1861 – Lincoln inaugurated, Confederacy authorizes an army of Volunteers.
April 1861 – Fort Sumter fired upon, the War Between the States Begins
As with any major conflict, the exact causes are quite difficult to objectively and
factually quantify. Many disparate events lead up to conflict, but without the benefit of removing
some of them, and then running a new timeline, one does not know if it was x or y that caused
the spark. For the American Civil War, or more accurately, the War Between the States, scholars
still debate the causes; and rarely do any find one cause, and rarely do any find that a single issue
was the true cause, despite the popular idea that the war was fought to free the slaves. In fact, a
conglomeration of causes appear, some political, some economic, some cultural, and some
simply rhetorical.
Within this structure then, one can be selective in looking at one potential scenario of
events that led to the conflict. For this paper, we will focus on six of those events, which are
interrelated in some ways, and yet in others quite disparate. What is clear, however, is that in
their own way each had a political, social, cultural, and economic impact on the coming military
and political crisis. Each topic is, on its own, a study in and of itself; we will focus on those
aspects of each topic that directly relate as causation for the War Between the States. For
analysis, these events will be grouped into three major sections: Economic, Cultural/Social, and
Political, with the idea that acting synergistically all contributed to the final outcome – war.
Central Issue: 1787 – During the 1898 Constitutional Convention, delegates debated the issue of
slavery, some seeing the chance to integrate this into a legal document prohibiting the institution.
Southern States, however, vowed to ban the union without a concession regarding slave trade.
The 3/5 clause also passed Congress, and the NW Ordinance was ratified.
Economic: The economic disparity between the North and the South has often been seen as the
central cause of the War. Economics and slavery were inexorably tied, as were the
industrialization of the north, and the agricultural base of the South.
1794 – Eli Whitney patents the Cotton Gin, which greatly increases the production of cleaned
cotton and makes the idea of cotton as a major southern industry a reality. This increases the
need and value of slaves in the cotton states.
1828-1832 – Congress raises tariffs with the Tariff of Abominations, which benefits the north,
and damages the southern economy. The Tariff Act of 1832 reduces duties, but the South
remains dissatisfied and threatens succession. In fact, South Carolina organizes a State Army and
declares the tariffs null and void.
Social: Without the modern benefit of mass-media, it took several cultural events to bring the
majority of the northern population around to the anti-slavery cause, which was a simpler and
more emotional way to compare the North and South. Once enough people were incensed about
slavery, it was easier for politicians to use it as a “cause.”
1845 – Former slave, Frederick Douglas, publishes his autobiography. This is widely read in the
upper class salon culture of the North, and Douglas himself is invited to speak at Church and
Political events. He becomes active in the political process, and even friendly and conversational
with major political figures.
1852 – Harriet Beacher Stowe publishes “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” a more popular version of the
slavery issue, calling attention to specific abuses. Almost instantly, it becomes a best-seller, is
read by school children, merchants, and used to exemplify the evils of the South, particularly
from religious sectors.
Political: Pressures continued to mount, candidates split, parties split, and a relative newcomer,
Abraham Lincoln, was seen as the candidate of choice in his ability to softly compromise.
1860 – The rift has become palpable between the regions, and despite not being on the ballot in
the Deep South, Abraham Lincoln is elected president with 40% of the popular vote and 59% of
the Electoral College. His platform is simple: the Union must be preserved at any cost. In
December, South Carolina secedes from the Union.
1861 – In January, another six States secede; the domino effect reaches a boiling point, and
despite many overtures of compromise, including the Crittenden Compromise, diplomatic
attempts to ease tension are unsuccessful and war is inevitable.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The institution of slavery and State’s Rights was central to the discussions leading up to
the Declaration of Independence, the separation of the Colonies from England, and in almost
every debate between Colonial Representatives when considering the formation of the new
Republic. Of course, slavery had been an institution in the Colonies since the 1600s, even such
notable figures as Thomas Jefferson owned slaves. And, if one looks at the philosophical and
political writings from 1600 to 1800, it is obvious that there remained deep questions as to the
hierarchy of Europeans, let alone slaves (Collier, 2007, intro, 3-19).
Of course, many groups in England and the Colonies opposed slavery, but many were the
same business owners who saw it to be the natural order of things to use child-labor, subsistence
wages, and harsh working conditions for the poor. Combine this view of slavery with the rapid
industrialization of the North, and the Southern agricultural economy quite dependent upon
slavery (the demographics of the South at the time did not allow for enough non-slaves to
adequately work the available land), and the undercurrents of conflict are already rising (Ibid).
The reality, however, was that the primary focus of the Colonies banding together was to
rid themselves of British rule. Whenever the topic arose, the Southern delegates insisted that
slavery was vital to the economic health of the South, and the South’s ability to contribute men,
money, and resources, to the War for Independence. Most Northern delegates did not like
slavery, but also felt the economic pressure and knew that for any separation between the
Colonies and England to be successful; all the 13 original colonies must be united (Maier, 1998,
inclusive).
Too, the North was concerned that the South would increase its power in the new
government by simply importing more slaves, witness a final compromise that each slave would
then count as only “3/5 a person.” Additionally, the South continued to believe that the Federalist
faction (led by Alexander Hamilton) would set up too central of a government, and that State’s
rights (championed by none other than Thomas Jefferson) should take precedence in most areas
(See the discussion of Hamilton and Jefferson in Zinn, 2005).
Thus, both sides hardly agreed on either issue, but there were so many other issues to face
that alliances were formed, compromises made, and finally, the South agreed that the slave trade
(importation) would occur for just 20 more years, and that imported slaves would be taxable. The
North, in turn, compromised to not insist that a complete ban on the institution of slavery be part
of the Constitution. So, too, the debate continued between factions regarding the powers of the
State, which became an administration-by-administration conundrum for the next several
elections (Collier).
Economically, then, the stage was set for conflict – neither side was completely satisfied
with the compromises that took place, yet understood the reality of the situation. The federalist
faction pushed through a stronger central government with John Adams, and the James Madison
and James Monroe; States rights increased and the agricultural debate under third President
Thomas Jefferson. The Northern States continued to wrest economic control over the new
Republic, and continued in the push for industrialization.
Meanwhile, knowing that the South was in need of a way to take a labor-intensive crop,
cotton, and turn it into a cash crop for the world, many inventors tried to produce a cotton gin
that was fairly easy to use and not too expensive to product. Almost immediately after the 1794
patent on the product cotton in the Southern States began to grow exponentially. It had
previously required considerable labor to clean and separate the fiber from the seeds; Whitney’s
gin revolutionized this process. Large areas of Southern land were cleared to plant cotton, and
the slave industries expanded, as workers were needed to plant and harvest the fiber. The North
benefited too; some say even moreso, since much of the raw cotton was sent to New England
mills for processing. This economic burst quieted dissention for a bit as the South hurried to
expand its base, but the requirements of so many new slaves, and the introduction of so many
new slave holders, exacerbated the slavery debate even more (Yafa, 2004, intro, Chpts. 1-3).
The Congress of the early 1800s had much with which to contend; war debt, the war of
1812, new lands, a growth in industry and drive to establish more states and increase the size of
the United States, and the continual question of slavery. In 1828 a Tariff was enacted, called the
“Tariff of Abominations” by the Southern States, was designed to protect Northern industry from
competition with European goods by increasing the prices of those imported goods. The South
was harmed in now paying higher prices on the goods the region did not produce or support. In
turn, the tariff reduced the imports on British goods, making it more difficult for the South to sell
raw cotton abroad. So much debated occurred that in 1832 another tariff was enacted, a
projectionist tariff, another compromise, another tariff of 1833, and still the South felt as if the
North was punishing them. The North believed Southern raw products should go first to them,
then excess exported, and the South should purchase Northern goods. That these goods were
more expensive than the imported products from Europe was of no consequence to the North –
thus, a continual economic divide (Thorton, et.al,, 2004). The South believed the North wanted
to remove their livelihood by eradicating slavery, and also to force the South to purchase from
the North – hardly, in their view, a wise way for a government to act if it wanted States to be
assertively pro-Republic.
Socially, many religious organizations in the North, and abroad, began to help runaway
slaves and call attention to the abuses of the slave system. Frederick Douglas, born a slave in
Maryland, finally, after several failed attempts, escaped in 1938 at the age of 20. He published
his autobiography, Life of Frederick Douglas, An American Slave, in 1945 after spending the
years in between lecturing and touring to promote the cause of equal rights. The book became a
bestseller, and within a few years of publication, was reprinted nine times with over 12,000
copies circulating in the United States (Oakes, 2008).
Also calling attention to the plight of the slaves was the 1852 publication of “Uncle
Tom’s Cabin,” by Harriet Beacher Stowe. That these two books could even be published, aside
from the fact of becoming bestsellers, was indicative that the Northern and European public was
supportive of the abolitionists cause (e.g. slavery abolished in Great Britain in 1834). Stowe was
a Connecticut minister and stalwart abolitionist who used prose to uncover the cruelty and
inhumanity of the entire institution of slavery. In fact, the book became such a huge success for
the author and publisher, Abraham Lincoln remarked when meeting Stowe, “So this is the little
lady who made this big war,” (Hedrick, 1994).
Socially and culturally, these two books changed the character of the abolitionist
movement in the United States. Both were translated into French and German, both had a wide
Northern scholarly and public school audience, both became immensely popular with Northern
politicians, and both proved that books about the plight of African slaves could surpass other
popular books, together becoming the most read and published books of the 18th century
(Kaufman, 2006, p. 18). With the South feeling economically deprived, and now the North
feeling both economically and culturally superior, the very foundation of what it meant to be a
Southerner was called into question.
This simmering pot continued to heat up. More ineffectual Tariff Acts were passed,
solving nothing; as new States entered the union, questions of being a Slave or Free State
became even more important the some of the economic qualifiers. Emotions were taught,
newspapers were polarized - the South calling for succession, the North for punishment and
abolishment of slavery. Then, in 1959, abolitionist John Brown seized the U.S. Armory at
Harper’s Ferry, Virginia, bringing national attention to the emotional and cultural divisions
surrounding the slave question. While convicted, emotions ran high – Northerners used his
execution as the an indication of the government’s backing of slavery; the South saw this as
another tactic designed to interfere with their own hegemony (Reynolds, 2006). What the
incident did, however, was further polarize the political scene for the upcoming 1860 election.
Throughout the 1850s Congress, States, and the nation had been divided on three major
questions: slavery (who has the right to abolish and which States may keep it), State’s Rights
(does a State have the right to secede or set its own laws contrary to Federal law), and Taxation
(can Congress impose tariffs or taxes that are detrimental to the individual State). These
questions split the Democratic Party and, despite not being on the ballot in many of the Southern
States, the ascension of the Republicans under Abraham Lincoln. The Republicans were,
contrary to popular myth, already a firm, second majority power in the 1856 election. However,
the Democratic split between John Breckenridge (Southern Democratic Party with 18% of the
popular vote), and Stephen Douglas (Northern Democratic Party with 30% of the popular vote)
clearly allowed Lincoln to receive 40% of the popular vote and 180 of the 152 electoral votes
needed to win (Zinn, Rubin, 2005).
So, at the end of 1860, the United States had a State’s Rights, Anti-Slavery President that
was elected primarily by the Northern electorate. Early in 1861, eleven Southern States declared
their secession from the Union, and formed the Confederate States of America, led by Jefferson
Davis. Both sides knew there would be a war, both sides had been throwing rhetoric back and
forth for decades, and now that the Southern States had defied the Union, it was only a matter of
which match would light the powder to begin the War. That match happened on April 12, 1861,
when Confederate forces attached South Carolina’s Fort Sumter, causing Lincoln to call for a
volunteer army from each State. This resulted in four more Southern States seceding, and by
mid-year, naval blockages and pressures to push into the South and retain the Union (Rubin,
2005; Manning, 2008). Of course, numerous complex battles, political machinations, and cultural
upheavals were the result of this conflict, but, as we have seen, the disagreement without
compromise had its roots in over 100 years of economic, political, and social disagreement.
References:
Boritt, Gabor, (1993). Why the Confederacy Lost/ Oxford University Press.
Collier, Christopher, (2007), Decision in Philadelphia: The Constitutional Convention of
1787, Oxford.
Dew, Charles, (2002). Apostles of Disunion: Southern Secession Commissioners and the
Causes Of the Civil War, University of Virginia Press.
Johnson, Michael, (2000 ). Abraham Lincoln, Slavery, and the Civil War, St. Martins.
Kaygman, W. (2006), The Civil War in American Culture, Edinburgh University press.
Maier, Pauline, (1998). American Scripture: Making of the Declaration of Independence,
Vintage Press.
Maltz, Earl, (2007), Dred Scott and the Politics of Slavery. University Press of Kansas.
Manning, Chandra, (2008), What This Cruel War Was Over: Soldiers, Slavery and the
Civil War, Vintage.
Oakes, James, (2008), The Radical and The Republican: Frederick Douglass, Abraham
Lincoln, and The Triumph of Antislavery Politics. Norton.
Reynolds, David, (2006), John Brown, Abolitionist: The Man Who Killed Slavery,
Sparked the Civil War, and Seeded Civil Rights, Vintage.
Rubin, Anne (2005). A Shattered Nation: The Rise & Fall of the Confederacy, UNC
Press.
Thornton, Mark and Robert Ekelund, (2004). Tariffs, Blockades, and Inflation: The
Economics of the Civil War, Rowman and Littlefield.
Yafa, Stephen, (2004). Big Cotton: How A Humble Fiber Created Fortunes, Wrecked
Civilizations, an Put America On The Map, Viking.
Zinn, Howard (2005), A People’s History of the United States, Harper.