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Chapter 7
Internet
Protocol
Version4
(IPv4)
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
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OBJECTIVES:
 To explain the general idea behind the IP protocol and the
position of IP in TCP/IP protocol suite.
 To show the general format of an IPv4 datagram.
 To discuss fragmentation and reassembly of datagrams.
 To discuss several options that can be in an IPv4 datagram and
their applications.
 To show how a checksum is calculated for the header of an IPv4
datagram at the sending site and how the checksum is checked at
the receiver site.
 To discuss IP over ATM and compare it with IP over LANs
and/or point-to-point WANs.
 To show a simplified version of the IP package and give the
pseudocode for some modules.
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Chapter
Outline
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Datagrams
7.3 Fragmentation
7.4 Options
7.5 Checksum
7.6 IP over ATM
7.7 Security
7.8 IP Package
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7-1 INTRODUCTION
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the transmission
mechanism used by the TCP/IP protocols at the
network layer.
IP is an unreliable and connectionless datagram
protocol—a best-effort delivery service.
If reliability is important, IP must be paired with a
reliable protocol such as TCP.
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7-1 INTRODUCTION
IP is also a connectionless protocol for a packet
switching network that uses the datagram approach.
Each datagram is handled independently.
Each datagram can follow a different route to the
destination.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
Relationship of IP to the rest of the TCP/IP Suite
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Figure 7.1
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Position of IP in TCP/IP protocol suite
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7-2 DATAGRAMS
Packets in the network (internet) layer are called
datagrams.
A datagram is a variable-length packet consisting of
two parts: header and data.
Header is 20 to 60 bytes in length and contains
information essential to routing and delivery.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
Format of the datagram packet
Some examples
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Figure 7.2
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IP datagram
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Version (VER): defines the version of the IP
protocol (version 4).
Header length (HLEN): defines the total length
of the datagram header in 4-byte words.
When there are no options, the header length is
20 bytes, and the value of this field is 5 (5×4=20).
When the option field is at its maximum size, the
value of this field is 15 (15×4=60).
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Service type. Originally, this field was referred to
as type of service (TOS). Part of the field was
used to define the precedence of the datagram;
the rest defined the type of service (low delay,
high throughput, and so on).
IETF has changed the interpretation of this 8-bit
field.
It now defines a set of differentiated services.
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The first 6 bits make up the codepoint subfield and
the last 2 bits are not used. The codepoint subfield
can be used in two different ways.
When the 3 right-most bits are 0s, the 3 left-most
bits are interpreted the same as the precedence bits
in the service type interpretation.
The precedence defines the eight-level priority of
the datagram (0 to 7) in issues such as congestion.
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Figure 7.3
x
Service type
x x 0 0
Precedence
interpretation
0
x
x
x
x
x
0
x
x
x
x
1
1
x
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x x x 0 1
Differential service
interpretation
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When the 3 right-most bits are not all 0s, the 6 bits
define 56 (64 − 8) services based on the priority
assignment by the Internet or local authorities.
The first category contains 24 service types; the
second and the third each contain 16.
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Total length. 16-bit field. It defines the total length
(header plus data) of the IP datagram in bytes.
To find the length of the data coming from the
upper layer . . .
Length of data = total length − header length
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Note
The total length field defines the total
length of the datagram including the
header.
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The total length of the IP datagram is limited to
65,535 (216 − 1) bytes.
Some physical networks are not able to
encapsulate a datagram of 65,535 bytes in their
frames. Hence, fragmentation.
The total length field is used in a few cases
-occasions in which the datagram is not the only
thing encapsulated in a frame;
-it may be that padding has been added.
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Figure 7.4
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Encapsulation of a small datagram in an Ethernet frame
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These fields are used in fragmentation
Identification.
Flags.
Fragmentation offset.
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Time to live. This field was originally designed to
hold a timestamp, which was decremented by each
visited router.
Today, this field is used to control the maximum
number of hops (routers) visited by the datagram.
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A datagram may travel between two or more
routers for a long time without ever getting
delivered to the destination host.
Another use: intentionally limit the journey of the
packet.
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Protocol. This 8-bit field defines the higher-level
protocol such as TCP, UDP, ICMP, and IGMP that
uses the services of the IP layer.
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Figure 7.5
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Multiplexing
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Checksum.
Source address.
Destination address.
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Example 7.1
An IP packet has arrived with the first 8 bits as shown:
The receiver discards the packet. Why?
Solution
There is an error in this packet. The 4 left-most bits (0100) show
the version, which is correct. The next 4 bits (0010) show the
wrong header length (2 × 4 = 8). The minimum number of bytes
in the header must be 20. The packet has been corrupted in
transmission.
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Example 7.2
In an IP packet, the value of HLEN is 1000 in binary. How many
bytes of options are being carried by this packet?
Solution
The HLEN value is 8, which means the total number of bytes in
the header is 8 × 4 or 32 bytes. The first 20 bytes are the base
header, the next 12 bytes are the options.
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Example 7.3
In an IP packet, the value of HLEN is 516 and the value of the
total length field is 002816. How many bytes of data are being
carried by this packet?
Solution
The HLEN value is 5, which means the total number of bytes in
the header is 5 × 4 or 20 bytes (no options). The total length is
40 bytes, which means the packet is carrying 20 bytes of data
(40 − 20).
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Example 7.4
An IP packet has arrived with the first few hexadecimal digits as
shown below:
How many hops can this packet travel before being dropped?
The data belong to what upper layer protocol?
Solution
To find the time-to-live field, we skip 8 bytes (16 hexadecimal
digits). The time-to-live field is the ninth byte, which is 01. This
means the packet can travel only one hop. The protocol field is
the next byte (02), which means that the upper layer protocol is
IGMP
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7-3 FRAGMENTATION
A datagram can travel through different networks.
Each router decapsulates the IP datagram from the
frame it receives, processes it, and then
encapsulates it in another frame. The format and
size of the received frame depend on the protocol
used by the physical network through which the
frame has just traveled. The format and size of the
sent frame depend on the protocol used by the
physical network through which the frame is going to
travel.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
 Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU)
 Fields Related to Fragmentation
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Maximum Transfer Unit
One of the fields defined in the frame format is the
maximum size of the data field
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Figure 7.6
MTU
IP datagram
Header
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MTU
Maximum length of data that can be encapsulated in a frame
Frame
Trailer
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The value of the MTU differs from 1 physical
network to another.
To make the IP protocol independent of the
physical network, the maximum length of the IP
datagram was made = 65,535 bytes
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Fragmentation
Each fragment has its own header …
Fragmentation done by …
Reassembly …
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Note
Only data in a datagram is fragmented.
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Fields related to Fragmentation
Identification
Flags
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Figure 7.7
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Flags field
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Fragmentation offset
13 bit field shows the relative position of this
fragment w.r.t. the whole datagram.
It is the offset of the data in the original datagram
measured in units of 8 bytes
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Figure 7.8
Fragmentation example
Offset = 0000/8 = 0
0000
1399
Offset = 1400/8 = 175
1400
2799
Offset = 2800/8 = 350
2800
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3999
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Figure 7.9
Detailed fragmentation example
14,567
1420
1 000
Bytes 0000–1399
14,567
4020
0 000
Original datagram
1
820
175
Fragment 1
14,567
Bytes 0000–3999
14,567
1420
1 175
Bytes 1400–2199
Fragment 2.1
Bytes 1400–2799
Fragment 2
14,567
1220
0 350
Bytes 2800–3999
Fragment 3
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Strategy for reassembly
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Example 7.5
A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 0. Is this the first
fragment, the last fragment, or a middle fragment? Do we know
if the packet was fragmented?
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Example 7.5
A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 0. Is this the first
fragment, the last fragment, or a middle fragment? Do we know
if the packet was fragmented?
Solution
If the M bit is 0, it means that there are no more fragments; the
fragment is the last one. However, we cannot say if the original
packet was fragmented or not. A nonfragmented packet is
considered the last fragment.
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Example 7.6
A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1. Is this the first
fragment, the last fragment, or a middle fragment? Do we know
if the packet was fragmented?
Solution
If the M bit is 1, it means that there is at least one more
fragment. This fragment can be the first one or a middle one,
but not the last one. We don’t know if it is the first one or a
middle one; we need more information (the value of the
fragmentation offset).
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Example 7.7
A packet has arrived with an M bit value of 1 and a
fragmentation offset value of zero. Is this the first fragment, the
last fragment, or a middle fragment?
Solution
Because the M bit is 1, it is either the first fragment or a middle
one. Because the offset value is 0, it is the first fragment.
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Example 7.8
A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100. What is
the number of the first byte? Do we know the number of the last
byte?
Solution
To find the number of the first byte, we multiply the offset value
by 8. This means that the first byte number is 800. We cannot
determine the number of the last byte unless we know the
length of the data.
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Example 7.9
A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100, the value
of HLEN is 5 and the value of the total length field is 100. What
is the number of the first byte and the last byte?
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Example 7.9
A packet has arrived in which the offset value is 100, the value
of HLEN is 5 and the value of the total length field is 100. What
is the number of the first byte and the last byte?
Solution
The first byte number is 100 × 8 = 800. The total length is 100
bytes and the header length is 20 bytes (5 × 4), which means
that there are 80 bytes in this datagram. If the first byte number
is 800, the last byte number must be 879.
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7-4 OPTIONS
The header of the IP datagram is made of two parts:
a fixed part and a variable part. The fixed part is 20
bytes long and was discussed in the previous
section. The variable part comprises the options,
which can be a maximum of 40 bytes.
Options, as the name implies, are not required for
a datagram. They can be used for network testing
and debugging. Although options are not a required
part of the IP header, option processing is required
of the IP software.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
 Format
 Option Types
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Figure 7.10
8 bits
Type
Option format
Variable length
8 bits
Length
Value
Number
Class
Copy
0 Copy only in first fragment
1 Copy into all fragments
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00
01
10
11
Datagram control
Reserved
Debugging and management
Reserved
00000
00001
00011
00100
00111
01001
End of option
No operation
Loose source route
Timestamp
Record route
Strict source route
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Option Types
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Figure 7.11 Categories of options
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Figure 7.12
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No operation option
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Figure 7.13
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Endo-of-option option
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Record-Route option
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Figure 7.14
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Record-route option
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Figure 7.15
7
Record-route concept
7 15
140.10.6.3
15
7 15 12
140.10.6.3
200.14.7.9
7 15 16
140.10.6.3
200.14.7.9
138.6.22.26
67.0.0.0/24
140.10.0.0/16
200.14.7.0/24
Network
Network
Network
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138.6.22.26
200.14.7.14
200.14.7.9
140.10.5.4
140.10.6.3
138.6.25.40
67.14.10.22
67.34.30.6
138.6.0.0/16
Network
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Strict-Source-Route option
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Figure 7.16
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Strict-source-route option
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Figure 7.17
Source: 67.34.30.6
Destination: 67.14.10.22
137 15 4
140.10.5.4
200.14.7.14
138.6.25.40
Strict-source-route option
Source: 67.34.30.6
Destination:140.10.5.4
137 15 8
67.14.10.22
200.14.7.14
138.6.25.40
Source: 67.34.30.6
Destination:200.14.7.14
137 15 12
67.14.10.22
140.10.5.4
138.6.25.40
Source: 67.34.30.6
Destination:138.6.25.40
137 15 16
67.14.10.22
140.10.5.4
200.14.7.14
138.6.25.40
67.0.0.0/24
140.10.0.0/16
200.14.7.0/24
Network
Network
Network
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138.6.22.26
200.14.7.14
200.14.7.9
140.10.5.4
140.10.6.3
67.14.10.22
67.34.30.6
138.6.0.0/16
Network
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Figure 7.18
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Loose-source-route option
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Timestamp option
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Figure 7.19
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Time-stamp option
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Figure 7.20
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Use of flags in timestamp
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Figure 7.21
68 28 5
0
Timestamp concept
68 28 13 0
140.10.6.3
36000000
1
1
68 28 21 0
140.10.6.3
36000000
200.14.7.9
36000012
1
68 28 29 0 1
140.10.6.3
36000000
200.14.7.9
36000012
138.6.22.26
36000020
67.0.0.0/24
140.10.0.0/16
200.14.7.0/24
Network
Network
Network
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138.6.22.26
200.14.7.14
200.14.7.9
140.10.5.4
140.10.6.3
67.14.10.22
67.34.30.6
138.6.0.0/16
Network
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Example 7.10
Which of the six options must be copied to each fragment?
Solution
We look at the first (left-most) bit of the type for each option.
a. No operation: type is 00000001; not copied.
b. End of option: type is 00000000; not copied.
c. Record route: type is 00000111; not copied.
d. Strict source route: type is 10001001; copied.
e. Loose source route: type is 10000011; copied.
f. Timestamp: type is 01000100; not copied.
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Example 7.11
Which of the six options are used for datagram control and which
for debugging and managements?
Solution
We look at the second and third (left-most) bits of the type.
a. No operation: type is 00000001; datagram control.
b. End of option: type is 00000000; datagram control.
c. Record route: type is 00000111; datagram control.
d. Strict source route: type is 10001001; datagram control.
e. Loose source route: type is 10000011; datagram control.
f. Timestamp: type is 01000100; debugging and management
control.
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Example 7.12
One of the utilities available in UNIX to check the traveling of the
IP packets is ping. The program ping is used to see if a host is
available. We ping a server at De Anza College named
fhda.edu. The result shows that the IP address of the host is
153.18.8.1. The result also shows the number of bytes used.
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Example 7.13
We can also use the ping utility with the -R option to implement
the record route option. The result shows the interfaces and IP
addresses.
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Example 7.14
The traceroute utility can also be used to keep track of the route
of a packet. The result shows the three routers visited.
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Example 7.15
The traceroute program can be used to implement loose source
routing. The -g option allows us to define the routers to be
visited, from the source to destination. The following shows how
we can send a packet to the fhda.edu server with the
requirement that the packet visit the router 153.18.251.4.
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Example 7.16
The traceroute program can also be used to implement strict
source routing. The -G option forces the packet to visit the
routers defined in the command line. The following shows how
we can send a packet to the fhda.edu server and force the
packet to visit only the router 153.18.251.4.
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7-5 CHECKSUM
The error detection method used by most TCP/IP
protocols is called the checksum. The checksum
protects against the corruption that may occur
during the transmission of a packet. It is redundant
information added to the packet.
The checksum is calculated at the sender and the
value obtained is sent with the packet. The receiver
repeats the same calculation on the whole packet
including the checksum. If the result is satisfactory,
the packet is accepted; otherwise, it is rejected.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
 Checksum Calculation at the Sender
 Checksum Calculation at the Receiver
 Checksum in the Packet
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Checksum Calculation at the Sender
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Checksum Calculation at the Receiver
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Figure 7.22
Checksum concept
Receiver
Section 1 n bits
Section 2
n bits
Checksum
Packet
n bits
..............
Checksum n bits
..............
Section k n bits
Sum n bits
Complement
n bits
Result
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If the result is 0, keep;
otherwise, discard.
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Figure 7.23
Sum : T
Checksum : _T
Sender
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Checksum in one’s complement arithmetic
T
_T
Datagram
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Checksum in the IP Packet
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Note
Checksum in IP covers only the header,
not the data.
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Example 7.17
Figure 7.24 shows an example of a checksum calculation at the
sender site for an IP header without options. The header is
divided into 16-bit sections. All the sections are added and the
sum is complemented. The result is inserted in the checksum
field.
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Figure 7.24
Example of checksum calculation at the sender
5
0
1
0
17
10.12.14.5
12.6.7.9
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Example 7.18
Figure 7.25 shows the checking of checksum calculation at the
receiver site (or intermediate router) assuming that no errors
occurred in the header. The header is divided into 16-bit
sections. All the sections are added and the sum is
complemented. Since the result is 16 0s, the packet is
accepted.
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Figure 7.25
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Example of checksum calculation at the receiver
88
Note
Appendix D gives an algorithm for
checksum calculation.
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7-6 IP OVER ATM
In the previous sections, we assumed that the
underlying networks over which the IP datagrams are
moving are either LANs or point-to-point WANs. In this
section, we want to see how an IP datagram is moving
through a switched WAN such as an ATM. We will see
that there are similarities as well as differences. The IP
packet is encapsulated in cells (not just one). An ATM
network has its own definition for the physical address
of a device. Binding between an IP address and a
physical address is attained through a protocol called
ATMARP.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
 ATM WANs
 Routing the Cells
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Figure 7.26
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An ATM WAN in the Internet
92
Note
The AAL layer used by the IP protocol is
AAL5.
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Figure 7.27
Entering-point and exiting-point routers
ATM cell
IP Packet
I
II
III
Entering-point
router
ATM Network
IP Packet
Exiting-point
router
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Figure 7.28
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Address binding in IP over ATM
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7-7 SECURITY
The IPv4 protocol, as well as the whole Internet, was
started when the Internet users trusted each other.
No security was provided for the IPv4 protocol.
Today, however, the situation is different; the
Internet is not secure any more. Although we
discuss network security in general and IP security
in particular in Chapters 29 and 30, we give a brief
idea about the security issues in IP protocol and the
solution.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
 Security Issues
 IPSec
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7-8 IP PACKAGE
In this section, we present a simplified example of a
hypothetical IP package. Our purpose is to show the
relationships between the different concepts
discussed in this chapter.
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Topics Discussed in the Section
 Header-Adding Module
 Processing Module
 Queues
 Routing Table
 Forwarding Module
 MTU Table
 Fragmentation Module
 Reassembly Table
 Reassembly Module
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Figure 7.29
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
IP components
100
 Header-Adding Module
 Processing Module
 Forwarding Module
 Fragmentation Module
 Reassembly Module
 Routing Table
 MTU Table
 Reassembly Table
 Queues - Input and Output
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Queues Input Queues
Output Queues
Routing Table
Forwarding Module
MTU Table
Fragmentation Module
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Reassembly Table
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Figure 7.30
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Reassembly table
108
Reassembly Module
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