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Sociology
The Core8e
Michael Hughes
Carolyn J. Kroehler
Chapter Outline
chapter 1
Developing a Sociological
Consciousness
Developing a Sociological
Consciousness
The Sociological Perspective
The Development of Sociology
Theoretical Perspectives
Conducting Research
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Developing a Sociological
Consciousness
Sociology is the
scientific study of social
interactions and social
organization.
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Developing a Sociological
Consciousness
Sociology is:
– Rigorous and systematic
– Basic or applied research
– Central to world health and
science
– A powerful scientific tool
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The Sociological
Perspective
Case Study: Talley’s Corner
(1967/2003)
• Social Scientist Elliot Liebow
• Downtown Washington, D.C.
African-American neighborhood
• New Deal Carryout Shop
• Differences in viewpoint between
low-income and middle-class men
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The Sociological
Perspective
The sociological imagination is
the ability to see private
experiences, personal difficulties,
and achievements as, in part, a
reflection of the structural
arrangements of society and the
times in which we live.
– Sociologist C. Wright Mills (1959)
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The Sociological
Perspective
• Microsociology: the detailed
study of the everyday life of
individuals
• Macrosociology: the large-scale,
long-term social processes of
organizations, institutions, and
broad social patterns
– Distinction is one of degree
– Complex webs of relationships
between micro and macro
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The Development of
Sociology
Auguste Comte (1798 – 1857)
• Founder of sociology
• Emphasis on scientific methods:
– Observation
– Experimentation
– Comparative historical analysis
• Social statics
– Order, stability, organization
• Social dynamics
– Development and social change
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The Development of
Sociology
Harriet Martineau (1802 –
1876)
• How to Observe Manners and
Morals (1938)
• Compared stratification systems of
Europe and the United States
• Compared Western women,
American slaves
• Significance undermined by male
domination of field
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The Development of
Sociology
Herbert Spencer (1820 – 1903)
• Compared society to biological
organism
• Static societal institutions are like
organs
• Social Darwinism
• John D. Rockefeller: “The growth of
a large business is merely a survival
of the fittest… the working out of a
law of nature.”
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The Development of
Sociology
Karl Marx (1818 – 1883)
• Political activist, sociologist,
philosopher, historian, economist,
political scientist
• History is struggles between classes
• Dialectical materialism – development
depends on clash of contradictions and
emergence of more advanced
structures
• Superstructure influenced by economic
base
• Economic determinist
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The Development of
Sociology
Émile Durkheim (1858 – 1916)
• Social integration – the density of
social relationships in a collection of
people
• The Division of Labor in Society
(1893/1964)
• Mechanical vs. organic solidarity
• Social facts – aspects of life that
cannot be explained at the individual
level
– Material vs. nonmaterial
• Suicide (1897/1951)
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The Development of
Sociology
Max Weber (1864 – 1920)
• Bureaucracy, lifestyle, Protestant
ethic, charisma
• Verstehen – the study of human
subjectivity
• The Ideal Type – focusing on
principal characteristics and ignoring
minor differences of a subject
• Importance of a “value-free
sociology”
• Neutrality/indifference/objectivity
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The Development of
Sociology
American Sociologists
• Ward (1841-1918) and Sumner (18401919)
• W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1963)
– The Philadelphia Negro (1900)
• First sociology dept. U. of Chicago (1893)
• Hull House (1889) by Addams and Starr
– Juvenile court system
– Workers’ compensation
– Community case study methodology
– Demographic mapping
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The Development of
Sociology
Contemporary Sociology
• Critical Theory – critical of sociology
– Passive, helpless individual
– Focus on nature of culture and mass
culture
• Feminism – women’s part in society
– Emphasis on oppression
– Liberal, Marxian, psychoanalytic, radical,
socialist
• Postmodernism – distrusts scientific
approach
– Modern image-based age makes
structure-based social theories obsolete
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Theoretical Perspectives
A theoretical perspective
provides a set of assumptions,
interrelated concepts, and
statements about how various
social phenomena are related to
one another.
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Theoretical Perspectives
Structural-Functional
(Functionalist)
• Emphasizes order and stability
• Society is a system in equilibrium
• If a system is to survive, essential
functions must be performed by the
system’s parts
• Dysfunctions detrimental to system
balance
• Manifest vs. latent functions
• Assumption of social consensus
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Theoretical Perspectives
Conflict Theory
• Emphasizes disorder, instability,
interests that divide, and social change
• Social unity is an illusion resting on
coercion
• Main source of conflict is resource
scarcity
• Power determines who gains and who
loses
• State is an instrument of oppression by
elite
• Cross-cutting conflicts provide stability
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Theoretical Perspectives
Symbolic Interactionism
•
Emphasizes personal, symbolic
interaction based on shared
meanings
• Micro-dimension of social life
• Three core assumptions
1. We respond based on meaning.
2. Meanings emerge from social
interaction.
3. Meanings continually emerge and
change.
• World is a constructed reality
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Theoretical Perspectives
Functionalist
Conflict
Interactionist
Primary level of
analysis
Macro
Macro
Macro
Nature of society
A set of interacting
parts
A set of competing
interest groups
A social reality that is
created and recreated
in social interaction
Foundations of social
interaction
Consensus of shared
beliefs and values
Conflict, coercion,
and power
Shared meanings
Focus of study
Social order
Social conflict and
social change
They dynamic
interplay between the
individual and
society
Advantages
An understanding of
social structure and
social stability
Uncovers historical
processes that lead to
social change
An understanding of
human beings as
active agents in social
life
Disadvantages
Ineffective in dealing
with social change
A weak
understanding of
social consensus and
social stability
Has difficulty dealing
with social structure
Table 1.1 Major Theoretical Perspectives in Sociology
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Conducting Research
A theory is a general framework
or perspective that provides an
explanation for a specific social
phenomenon.
Research provides findings that
test our theories and provide the
information needed to formulate
public policy.
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Conducting Research
Basic Concepts in
Research
• Variable
– Independent
– Dependent
•
•
•
•
Hypothesis
Correlation
Causation
Spurious correlation
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Conducting Research
Major techniques of data
collection
1. Experiments
–
–
Experimental and control groups
Laboratory setting
•
–
Medical and psychological research
Field settings
•
•
Natural responses more likely
Intrusions are possible
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Conducting Research
Major techniques of data
collection
2. Surveys
–
–
Personal or mailed interviews
Data source is always the selfreport
Representative samples
–
•
•
–
–
Random samples
Stratified random samples
Questions that bias
Pretesting
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Conducting Research
Major techniques of data
collection
3. Observation
–
Scientific if:





–
Serves clear research objective
Systematic
Carefully recorded
Related to broader research
Subject to scientific controls and
checks
Unobtrusive vs. participant
•
Example: Elliot Liebow and Tally
Jackson
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Conducting Research
Major techniques of data
collection
4.
Comparative and historical research
– Archival research uses existing
records that have been produced or
maintained by persons other than
the researcher
– Examples: census data, government
statistics, newspaper reports,
personal letters, court records
– States and Social Revolution (1979)
by sociologist Theda Skocpol
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Conducting Research
Major techniques of data
collection
5. Feminist research approach
–
Commitment to three goals
•
•
•
–
Include and uncover women’s lives in
social research
Minimize harm by avoiding
exploitation and minimizing negative
consequences
Focus research to promote social
change and reduce inequality
Sprague and Zimmerman (1993)
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Conducting Research
Selecting a Researchable Problem
Reviewing the Literature
Formulating a Hypothesis
Choosing a Research Design
Analyzing the Results
Stating Conclusions
From Figure 1.1
The Steps in the Scientific Method
Collecting the Data
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