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CHAPTER 15:
FOREIGN
AND
DEFENSE
POLICY
Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy
•
Foreign policy is a nation’s external goals and
the techniques and strategies used to achieve
these goals. In practice foreign policy cannot
be totally separated from domestic policy
because the techniques and strategies used in
foreign policy will have significant impact on
domestic goals and policies. Some of the
techniques used in the development of foreign
policy include:
–
–
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diplomacy - the total process by which states carry
on political relations
economic aid - assistance to other nations in the
form of grants, loans, or credits to purchase goods
technical assistance - sending experts with
technical skills in agriculture, engineering, or
business to aid other nations
Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy
• A major goal of foreign policy is national security,
which is the foreign and domestic policy
designed to protect the independence and
political and economic integrity of the United
States. Securing the nation from other nations is
a difficult and complex task. In addition to the
conventional military forces needed to repel
aggressive action by other nations, the United
States must also have strategic policy to protect
the country from potential hostile actions.
Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy
•
Defense policy is a subset of national
security policy that includes the directing
of the scale and size of the American
armed forces. Defense policy considers
the types of armed forces we need, how
many wars we need to be prepared to
fight simultaneously, and the type of
weaponry that will be required.
Facing the World: Foreign and Defense Policy
•
Diplomacy is the total process by which
states carry on political relations with
each other. It is the process of settling
conflicts by peaceful means. During the
1990’s, the United States has used
diplomacy to help unstable areas of the
world negotiate peace. For example, the
United States encouraged the
negotiation of the North Ireland Peace
Resolution.
Morality Versus Reality in Foreign Policy
•
The development of foreign policy begins with the view
a country and its leaders have of the world and how it
operates. For an extended period of time the United
States has operated on the assumption of moral
idealism. This view of the world sees all nations as
willing to cooperate and agree on moral standards.
Clearly not all foreign leaders have operated from the
moral idealism standard. However, when the United
States encountered leaders of foreign nations who did
not fit this model, like Hitler in the 1940s, the U.S. did
not alter from this position. Typically, foreign policies
that are based on moral idealism are unsuccessful
because they assume an American ideal of morality
that may not be universal for every nation.
Morality Versus Reality in Foreign Policy
•
A competing model of foreign policy is grounded in the
philosophy of political realism. Political Realists see
each nation acting to maximize its own interest. From
this perspective, foreign policy will not be used to
further idealistic goals for the world. Instead foreign
policy will reflect the values that will produce the best
results for the people within the nation. What difference
does it make if the United States conducts foreign
policy from the position of moral idealism, or from the
position of political realism? How could the public
influence which view of human nature the federal
government should operate from when conducting
foreign policy?
Morality Versus Reality in Foreign Policy
•
American foreign policy in this century
has been a mixture of both. For
example, the second Gulf War in 2003
revealed a mixture of idealism and
realism. While the primary motive for
invading Iraq was realistic (in the
interests of U.S. security), another goal
of the war reflected idealism (the
liberation of the Iraqi people from an
oppressive regime).
Challenges in World Politics
•
The issue of terrorism has proven to be an important
foreign policy challenge for the United States,
particularly in the era after September 11, 2001. In the
aftermath of the attacks on the U.S., the current Bush
administration launched a war on terrorism. One
primary goal of that war was to oust the Taliban
government from power in Afghanistan. The Taliban
was supportive of Al Qaeda, Osama bin Laden’s
organization deemed responsible for the September 11
attacks. The U.S., along with a coalition of allies and
supporters succeeded in ousting the Taliban and
supported the creation of a new regime that did not
support terrorism. Terrorist violence also has fostered
increased security measures as nations attempt to
balance a desire to protect citizens from terrorists with
the citizens’ rights to privacy.
Challenges in World Politics
•
Nuclear proliferation is an important U.S.
foreign policy concern caused in part by the
fear that terrorists will gain control of nuclear
weapons. As a result of the dissolution of the
Soviet Union, independent states now possess
the nuclear warheads formerly controlled by
the Soviet Union. The issue of nuclear
proliferation again proved important in 1998
when India and Pakistan each detonated
nuclear test bombs. These tests came despite
the protests of the international community.
Challenges in World Politics
•
The People’s Republic of China will continue to be an
important player in world affairs. During the Clinton
administration, China was granted most-favored nation
status on a year-to-year basis. China’s enormous
population is tremendously attractive to western
corporations, and its possession of nuclear weapons
enhance China as an important nation in the twentyfirst century. In spite of tensions between China and
the United States in 2001 when an American spy plane
collided with a Chinese fighter plane in Chinese air
space, China fully backed the United States’ war on
terrorism, and even provided intelligence information to
the United States.
Challenges in World Politics
•
The interdependence of the world
economy is demonstrated by stock
markets all over the world responding to
regional ups and downs. In particular, the
Asian economic crisis caused
international concern as stock markets
responded to bad economic news from
parts of Asia.
Challenges in World Politics
•
Regional conflicts no longer are conflicts
between countries backed by the two super
powers. However, this has not meant the end
of conflicts between nations, or within nations.
–
In Central America and the Caribbean the U.S. has
been actively involved in limiting the amount of
armed conflicts. In 1989 the U.S. sent military
troops to replace the leader of the government of
Panama. One of the most pressing long-term
problems for the U.S. in this region has been Cuba.
With the demise of the Soviet Union, the Cuban
government has had little economic aid. But the
impasse between the U.S. and Cuba became
dramatically clear during the Elian Gonzalez case.
Challenges in World Politics
•
The Middle East has long been an area of concern for
the United States because we purchase oil from the
region. Hostilities culminated in 1990 with the Iraqi
invasion of Kuwait. This action led the U.S. to
persuade the United Nations to respond with
aggressive action against Iraq. The Gulf War ended
with the reinstatement of the Kuwait government but
did not remove Hussein from power. The United
States advocates stability in this region because of its
impact on world energy supplies and because the
state of Israel has had direct and indirect protection
from the U.S. since its creation in 1956.
Challenges in World Politics
•
After the terrorist attacks on the United States on
September 11, 2001, the United States made it clear
that it consider Iraq and Saddam Hussein to be part of
an “axis of evil” that threatened world peace. In 2002
and early 2003, President George W. Bush called for a
“regime change” in Iraq, but Bush was unable to
convince the United Nations that military force was
necessary in Iraq. Nonetheless, in March 2003, a
U.S.–led coalition of nations invaded Iraq and within a
month had ended Hussein’s decades-old dictatorship.
The efforts of the coalition forces then turned to the
task of assisting Iraq in recovering from the war and
establishing a new government regime.
Challenges in World Politics
•
Regional conflicts mushroomed in Eastern Europe
after the break up of the Soviet Union. In some
countries the conflict was managed in a peaceful
manner (Czechoslovakia became two independent
nations) while in others the conflict is extremely violent
(former Yugoslavia). In the late 1990’s the United
States and European countries began a bombing
campaign that attempted to force Serbian leaders from
waging war against ethnic Albanians in Kosovo. The
bombing did stop some of the violence against
Albanians, but left the Serbian leadership politically
strengthened.
Challenges in World Politics
•
Various regions of Africa continue to challenge foreign
policy. Civil war in Rwanda caused huge refugee
problems in neighboring Uganda and Zaire. Despite
the extent of the crisis, the U.S. did very little to help. In
addition, unrest continues to be a problem in the
Congo and in Sierra Leone. Many see the western
world’s lack of response as evidence of a political
realist perspective in foreign policy. In addition, famine
and disease, particularly the spread of AIDS negatively
impact the economic, social and political realms of
many African nations and create instability in this part
of the world.
Who Makes Foreign Policy?
•
The constitutional powers of the president require him
to be actively involved in the development of foreign
policy. However, it is important to note the difference
between the position of the United States in world
events in 1787 when the Constitution was drafted, and
the position of the United States in the beginning of the
twenty-first century. In 1787, the United States was
neither a powerful nation nor a major player in shaping
world events. Today the United States is the only
country that has both a highly developed military with
international power and a world-based economy that
affects all other nations. This unique position has
forced the United States to be active in world events
and as the leader of the executive branch the
president must play an integral role in foreign policy.
Included in the powers of the president are his position
as commander-in- chief of the military and the power
to make executive agreements.
Who Makes Foreign Policy?
•
In addition to the constitutional powers, the president
also has informal techniques with which he can
develop foreign policy. These techniques include:
– The access to information from within the executive
branch.
• The Department of Defense.
• Central Intelligence Agency
• State Department
• All other agencies and departments that collect
information about international affairs.
Who Makes Foreign Policy?
– As legislative leader, the president can
influence the budgetary constraints in all
areas of appropriations. This includes
economic aid, military aid, and humanitarian
aid.
– The president can use his position to build
public support for his specific programs.
– As leader of the government the president
can make decisions for the country in the
world arena that set the moral tone for the
foreign policy of the nation.
Who Makes Foreign Policy?
•
While the president has considerable influence
on the making of foreign policy there are many
sources of foreign policy-making within the
executive branch. The sources include:
–
The Department of State is responsible for the daily
operation of foreign policy. Every country that the
United States officially recognizes receives State
Department officials who maintain an office (or
offices) in the country. These officials gather
information and advise the president on the
development of social, political, and economic
conditions within their countries and how events
could affect the United States.
Who Makes Foreign Policy?
• The National Security Council was created to aid
the president in integrating the volumes of
information related to foreign policy. From the
Nixon administration through the George H. W.
Bush administration (1968-1992) the NSC was
seen by many political analysts as a rival to the
State Department in the development of foreign
policy. During the Reagan administration the
NSC conducted secret foreign policy that was
hidden from Congress and, according to
President Reagan, the president.
Who Makes Foreign Policy?
–
The intelligence community consists of the forty-plus
government agencies or bureaus that engage in intelligence
activities, information, and policy development. These
agencies gather information about the capabilities of foreign
governments, and perform activities that further U.S. foreign
policy goals. These agencies include the following:
• Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)
• National Security Agency (NSA)
• Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA)
• Offices within the Department of Defense
• Bureau of Intelligence and Research in the Department of
State
• Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
• Army intelligence
• Air Force intelligence
• Department of the Treasury
• Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)
• Department of Energy
Who Makes Foreign Policy?
•
The Department of Defense was created in 1947
in an effort to bring all military activity under the
jurisdiction of a civilian Secretary of Defense; it
replaced the Department of War, which had been
in existence since 1789. But the reorganization
and creation of the Department of Defense
created a single entity responsible for military
activity. This reorganization helped to refine the
gathering of information important to the
president in the area of foreign policy.
Congress Balances the Presidency
• How much power should the president have in the area of foreign
policy? This is not an easy question to answer today, nor was it an
easy question for the founding fathers. In 1789 when the Constitution
became effective, the power of the president in the area of foreign
policy was rather limited because the power of the United States was
very limited. The president was commander-in-chief, but only
Congress could declare war. The president was responsible for
making treaties but with the advice and consent of the Senate. As
time progressed the power of the United States grew both
economically and militarily. This increased power meant an
increased role for the institution of the president. By the beginning of
the twentieth century the United States had become a world power
and the power of the presidency had expanded dramatically. Did the
founding fathers intend for one person to have this much power?
After the end of the Vietnam conflict Congress took action that was
intended to reduce the power of the president. The War Powers Act
limited the president’s use of troops in military action without
congressional approval.
Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy
•
Currently, the amount of interaction between all nations socially,
economically, and politically is expanding dramatically. Foreign
policy is becoming difficult to separate from domestic policy.
President George H. W. Bush, President Clinton and President
George W. Bush all appear to be influenced by public opinion in
the development of specific foreign policy (although it is difficult to
measure), and it appears that the American public is becoming
more attentive to foreign affairs, particularly after September 11,
2001. This was especially the case during the Gulf war of 2003,
during which time there were massive anti-war demonstrations.
But besides fears of terrorism, Americans are increasingly
interdependent on the global economy. Americans are affected by
volatility in other nations now more than ever. This is especially
true of Americans who are employed by multinational
corporations, by American corporations dependent upon foreign
markets, and by suppliers to these corporations. And as an
increased percentage of Americans hold stock portfolios, the
volatility of the global economy has become an increasingly
important source of domestic public opinion. If this trend continues
it seems likely that the public will more strongly influence foreign
policy.
Domestic Sources of Foreign Policy
•
A major source of jobs in the United States has been
tied to the manufacture of military equipment. When
President Clinton proposed a significant cut in the
budget for the military, there was significant resistance
from the military-industrial complex. The militaryindustrial complex is the term that describes the
mutually beneficial relationship between the armed
forces and defense contractors. Many communities
were very opposed to budget cuts that would mean the
loss of jobs in their community, and would hurt
secondary economies surrounding the bases as well.
When base closings were announced, many political
leaders opposed these closings because of the
economic hardships this would place on the
communities affected.
The Major Foreign Policy Themes
•
The United States has not always had the same goals
or objectives in foreign policy. Part of the reason for
the different goals and objectives has been the
differing levels of power of the United States in relation
to the power of other countries. As the United States
became more powerful it began to take a different role
in world events and this led to different goals and
objectives. The following themes of United States
foreign policy have influenced the actions of the
government and in many cases the actions of the rest
of the world.
The Major Foreign Policy Themes
• Formative years (1776-1800). The Declaration of
Independence was the first foreign policy
statement of the United States. Foreign policy
was on the whole nonexistent prior to the
nineteenth century. It was characterized by the
large number of things that the government
(then under the Articles of Confederation) could
not do, including that it could not control
commerce, and had no right to make
commercial treaties. The goal was to “steer clear
of permanent alliances.”
The Major Foreign Policy Themes
•
The period of the Monroe Doctrine (18231898) was different from the formative years.
While the U.S. was not going to be actively
involved in the affairs of countries in Europe,
Asia, or Africa, the U.S. was concerned with
the Western Hemisphere. The Monroe
Doctrine placed the United States as the
leading country in the Western Hemisphere.
This doctrine attempted to limit European
influence in North and South America while
increasing the influence of the U.S.
The Major Foreign Policy Themes
• The Spanish-American War and World War I
(1898-1919) brought about a dramatic change in
the foreign policy of the United States. For the
first time the U.S. was recognized as an
important player in the game of international
affairs. Not only was the U.S. concerned with
the Western Hemisphere, it was now concerned
with international events throughout the globe.
During this era the United States actively sought
to influence the foreign policies of all major
nations. The first war of nations (known at the
time as the Great War) marked the beginning of
the end of this era of foreign policy.
The Major Foreign Policy Themes
• The Era of Internationalism (1942-present)
began the day after the Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbor. After defeating Germany and
Japan in World War II, the United States sought
to eliminate the conditions that led to both world
wars and formed the United Nations.
The Major Foreign Policy Themes
•
The alliance formed by the United States and
the Soviet Union during World War II was
short-lived. Because of their contrasting
economic and political systems the United
States and the Soviet Union became major
adversaries. This adversarial relationship
would dominate foreign policy throughout the
world for the next 46 years. The relations
between the U.S. and the USSR followed the
following themes from 1945 through 1991.
The Major Foreign Policy Themes
– The Cold War was an ideological, political,
and economic impasse. The Soviet Union
created an area of influence that became
known as the Soviet bloc, while the United
States entered into a military alliance with
many European nations called the North
Atlantic Treaty Organization, or NATO.
Winston Churchill proclaimed the Soviets
had placed “an iron curtain” between the
countries of Eastern Europe and Western
Europe.
The Major Foreign Policy Themes
–
–
Containment was a new U.S. foreign policy that
addressed this new threat from the USSR. Called
the Truman Doctrine, this policy was adopted in an
attempt to limit the spread of Soviet influence in
other countries. The policy of containment led the
U.S. to a military involvement in the Korean conflict
and the Vietnam conflict.
Confrontation in the nuclear world became a real
threat in the late 1950s when the U.S. and the
USSR had nuclear bombs and the technological
means to deliver them.
The Major Foreign Policy Themes
–
A period of détente or a relaxing period between the
superpowers began to develop during the late
1960s, as both sides realized that a nuclear war
meant mutual assured-destruction (MAD). Although
there were still significant problems between the
super powers (the U.S. refused to attend the
Olympics held in the USSR in 1980 and the USSR
refused to attend the Olympics held in the U.S. in
1984), relations were rarely openly hostile.
Significant strides were taken to limit the use of
nuclear weapons. The Strategic Arms Limitation
Treaty (SALT I) went into effect, and although SALT
II was never ratified, another major treaty limiting
strategic weapons (START - Strategic Arms
Reduction Treaty) was signed.
The Major Foreign Policy Themes
–
During the Reagan and George H. W. Bush years,
the world order changed drastically. The dissolution
of the Soviet Union culminated in 1989 with the fall
of the Berlin Wall, the last bastion of the iron curtain.
This event signaled a major alteration in the Soviet
Union’s influence. Shortly thereafter, the Baltic
republics separated from the Soviet Union. The
USSR was dissolved in December 1991, leaving a
commonwealth of 15 independent nations to
grapple with the major social, economic, and
political problems in the 1990s and today. The
dismantling of the Soviet Union led to new world
problems and opportunities for the United States.