Download 01 The Human Body: An Orientation

Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation
Copyright © 2008 Pearson
An Overview of Anatomy
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Anatomy
 The study of the structure of the human body
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Physiology
 The study of body function
 *Please understand the difference between
structure and function
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An Overview of Anatomy
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Anatomical terminology
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Branches of anatomy
 Based on ancient Greek or Latin
 Provides standard nomenclature worldwide
 Gross anatomy
 Microscopic anatomy (histology)
 Surface anatomy – need to know what a normal
body looks like to identify anomalies, locate veins
for venipuncture, etc.
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An Overview of Anatomy
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Other branches of anatomy
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Developmental anatomy-structural changes of aging
Embryology – study of development of fetus
Pathological anatomy (pathology)- study of disease
Radiographic anatomy- study of anatomy using radiographic
imagery, CT, MRI, PET, ultrasound
**Why are there so many different imaging techniques?
Please understand what each technique images
 Functional morphology
 Microscopic – anatomy of structures using various
microscopic instruments.
 Histology – study of tissues
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The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
 Chemical level – atoms form molecules
 Cellular level – cells and their functional subunits
 Tissue level – a group of cells performing a common
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function
*Please think about the fact that our bodies are made of
atoms, the same thing as rocks, plants, stars and comets!
By understanding the nature of specific atomic structures,
you will become aware of how chemistry provides the basis
of living systems. Chemistry is a simple matter of
balancing electromagnetic charges! You can move a piece
of metal by bringing a magnet nearby…movement!
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The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
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Organ level – a discrete structure made up of
more than one tissue. e.g. the heart is made of
muscle (obviously), connective tissue, nerves and
epithelial tissue (valves)
Organ system – organs working together for a
common purpose
Organismal level – the result of all simpler levels
working in unison
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The Hierarchy of Structural Organization
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Figure 1.1
Systemic v. Regional Anatomy
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Systemic – study of anatomy by system
Regional – study of anatomy by region
Most students use a combination of regional and
systemic study
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Integumentary System
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Forms external body covering
Protects deeper tissues from injury
Synthesizes vitamin D
Site of cutaneous receptors
 (pain, pressure, etc.) and sweat and oil glands
 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=no_XRnoNGfE
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Skeletal System
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Protects and supports body organs
Provides a framework for muscles
Blood cells formed within bones
Stores minerals
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vya4wpS2fgk
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Muscular System
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Allows manipulation of environment
Locomotion
Facial expression
Maintains posture
Produces heat
http://www.youtube.com/user/bigsmokes62#p/a/u/
1/RsWNyqnHQ2I
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Nervous System
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Fast-acting control system
Responds to internal and external changes
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Endocrine System
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The Endocrine system works as a regulatory messaging
system similar to the nervous system
Remember: cells are isolated! They don’t know what to do
unless they are told what to do and either the nervous
system or then endocrine system tells them what to do!
 Glands secrete hormones that regulate
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Growth
Reproduction
Nutrient use
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Cardiovascular System
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Blood vessels transport blood
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Carries oxygen and carbon dioxide
Also carries nutrients and wastes
Heart pumps blood through blood vessels
Blood vessels are merely the plumbing which brings water,
gases and nutrients to the individual cells. It is similar to
a city’s water system. The heart is the pump just like our
residential water has a pump station so that we have water
pressure!
Again, the cells are (mostly) fixed and isolated and they rely
on the intelligence of the monitoring systems of the body
(the nervous system) to provide it’s needs.
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Lymphatic System/Immunity
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Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels
Disposes of debris in the lymphatic system
Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes)
Mounts attack against foreign substances in the
body
The lymphatic system is a highly understudied
system in the body. It is in fact one of the most
important systems of the body! Without proper
functioning of this system, we would die!
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Lymphedema
The lymphatic
drainage of the leg
is impaired and the
fluid collects in the
limb causing it to
swell. The cells are
improperly
nourished and will
become diseased.
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Respiratory System
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Keeps blood supplied with oxygen
Removes carbon dioxide
Gas exchange occurs through walls of air sacs in
the lungs
This is a simple system to understand but it also
functions in the acid-base balance of the
physiology
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Digestive System
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Breaks down food into absorbable units
Indigestible foodstuffs eliminated as feces
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Urinary System
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Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance
The cells of our body (all 70 trillion of them!)
require an exact environment to survive. The
urinary system along with the lymphatic system
provides this environment directly.
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Why do we have body systems?
What do they provide?
Do we need all of them?
How did they come about?
What is homeostasis?
How does each system contribute to homeostasis?
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Male & Female Reproductive Systems
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Overall function is to produce offspring
Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
Mammary glands produce milk
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Gross Anatomy – An Introduction
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Anatomical position – a common visual reference
point
 Person stands erect with feet together and eyes
forward
 Palms face anteriorly with the thumbs pointed
away from the body
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Directional terminology – refers to the body in
anatomical position
 Standardized terms of directions are paired terms
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Gross Anatomy – An Introduction
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Figure 1.3
Gross Anatomy – An Introduction
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Directional terms
Regional terms – names of specific body areas
 Axial region – the main axis of the body
 Appendicular region – the limbs
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Orientation and Directional Terms
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Table 1.1 (1 of 3)
Orientation and Directional Terms
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Table 1.1 (1 of 3)
Orientation and Directional Terms
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Table 1.1 (2 of 3)
Orientation and Directional Terms
May be used on exams!
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Table 1.1 (3 of 3)
Regional Terms
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Figure 1.4a
Regional Terms
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Figure 1.4b
Body Planes and Sections
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Coronal (frontal) plane
 Lies vertically and divides body into anterior and
posterior parts
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Median (midsagittal) plane
 Specific sagittal plane that lies vertically in the
midline
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Body Planes and Sections
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Transverse plane
 Runs horizontally
and divides body
into superior and
inferior parts
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Figure 1.5
Oblique Section Through the Trunk
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Figure 1.6
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Oblique Plane
 Divides the body at
an angle between
the horizontal and
vertical planes
Banana Sectioned into Planes
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Figure 1.7
The Human Body Plan
 Tube-within-a-tube
 Bilateral symmetry
 Dorsal hollow nerve cord
 Notochord (primative supporting rod) and vertebrae
 Segmentation
 Pharyngeal pouches (gills!)
 Post-anal tail (at some point in development)
 Characteristics common to all vertebrate
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Basic Human Body Plan and Structures
Shared with all Vertebrates
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Figure 1.8a
Basic Human Body Plan and Structures
Shared with all Vertebrates
May be used on exams!
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Figure 1.8b
Basic Human Body Plan and Structures
Shared with all Vertebrates
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Figure 1.8c
Body Cavities and Membranes
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Dorsal body cavity
 Cranial cavity
 Vertebral cavity
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Body Cavities and Membranes
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Ventral body cavity
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Thoracic cavity – divided into three parts
Be able to describe it’s location and contents! Anterior-sternum,
posterior-thoracic vertebrae, lateral-lungs, superior-1st rib,
inferior-diaphragm
 Two lateral parts each containing a lung surrounded by a
pleural cavity
 Mediastinum – lies between the lungs and contains the heart
surrounded by the pericardial sac, the trachea, the esophagus,
the superior vena cava, the inferior vena cava and various
nerves. This is an anatomically important area.
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Body Cavities and Membranes
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Ventral cavity (continued)
 Abdominopelvic cavity – divided into two parts
 Abdominal cavity – contains the liver, stomach,
kidneys, and other organs
 Pelvic cavity – contains the bladder, some
reproductive organs, and rectum
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Body Cavities and Membranes
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Figure 1.9a
Body Cavities and Membranes
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Figure 1.9b
Body Cavities and Membranes
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Serous cavities – a coelomic cavity, like that enclosed by
the pericardium, peritoneum, or pleura, not communicating
with the outside body, and whose lining membrane secretes
a serous fluid. Pleura (enclosing lungs),
pericardium(enclosing heart), and peritoneum(enclosing
most of abdominal organs but specifically NOT the
kidneys!)
 Parietal serosa – outer wall of the cavity
 Visceral serosa covers the visceral organs
 *Always remember the difference between parietal and
visceral…visceral is ALWAYS against the organ(s)
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Body Cavities and Membranes
The purpose of the
serosal membranes is
to reduce friction so
that viscera (organs)
move freely and stay
cool.
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Figure 1.10a, b
Body Cavities and Membranes
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Figure 1.10c
Body Cavities and Membranes
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Figure 1.10d
Body Cavities and Membranes
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Other cavities
 Oral cavity
 Nasal cavity
 Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities
 Synovial cavities
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Other Body Cavities
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Figure 1.11
Abdominal Regions and Quadrants
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Abdominal regions divide the abdomen into nine
regions
Abdominal quadrants divide the abdomen into
four quadrants
 Right upper and left upper quadrants
 Right lower and left lower quadrants
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Abdominal Regions
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Figure 1.12a, b
Abdominal Quadrants
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Figure 1.12c
Microscopic Anatomy
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Microscopy – examining small structures through
a microscope
 Light microscopy illuminates tissue with a beam
of light (lower magnification)
 Electron microscopy uses beams of electrons
(higher magnification)
 TEM transmission electron microscopy will
always be sharper than light microscope
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Microscopic Anatomy
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Figure 1.13
Microscopic Anatomy
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Preparing human tissue for microscopy
 Specimen is fixed (preserved) and sectioned
 Specimen is stained to distinguish anatomical
structures
 Acidic stain – negatively charged dye molecules
 Basic stain – positively charged dye molecules
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Microscopic Anatomy
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Scanning electron microscopy
 Heavy metal salt stain – deflects electrons in the
beam to different extents
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Artifacts
 Minor distortions of preserved tissues
 Not exactly like living tissues and organs
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Clinical Anatomy – An Introduction to Medical
Imaging Techniques
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X ray – electromagnetic waves of very short
length
 Best for visualizing bones and abnormal dense
structures
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Figure 1.14
Clinical Anatomy – An Introduction to Medical
Imaging Techniques
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Variations of X ray
 Fluoroscope – images are viewed on a fluorescent
screen
 Allows viewing of internal organs as they move
 Cineradiography – uses X-ray cinema film to
record organ movements
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Advanced X-Ray Techniques
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Computed (axial) tomography (CT or CAT) –
takes successive X rays around a person's full
circumference
 Translates recorded information into a detailed
picture of the body section
 This technique receives information only from
transverse planes and adds them up to form a 3D
image.
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Advanced X-Ray Techniques
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Digital subtraction angiography (DSA) imaging
provides an unobstructed view of small arteries
 DSA is often used to identify blockages of arteries
that supply the heart or brain
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Advanced X-Ray Techniques
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Positron emission tomography (PET) – forms
images by detecting radioactive isotopes injected
into the body
Sonography (ultrasound imaging) – body is
probed with pulses of high-frequency sound waves
that echo off the body's tissues
 Imaging technique used to determine the age of a
developing fetus
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Advanced X-Ray Techniques
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Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) – produces
high-quality images of soft tissues
 Distinguishes body tissues based on relative water
content
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Figure 1.19a