Download Organizational Behavior 10e.

10th Edition
Managing Organizational Behavior
Moorhead & Griffin
Chapter 4
Motivation of Individuals
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
All rights reserved.
Prepared by Charlie Cook
The University of West Alabama
Chapter Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
1. Characterize the nature of motivation, including its
importance and basic historical perspectives.
2. Identify and describe the need-based perspectives
on motivation.
3. Identify and describe the major process-based
perspectives on motivation.
4. Describe learning-based perspectives on motivation.
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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The Nature of Motivation
• Motivation
–The set of forces that leads people to behave in
particular ways
• The Importance of Motivation
–Job performance (P) depends upon motivation (M),
ability, and environment (E)
•P = M + A + E
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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4.1
Motivational Framework
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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The Motivational Framework
• How Motivational Processes Occur:
–A need is anything an individual requires or wants
–A need deficiency leads to need to satisfy the need
–Goal-directed behaviors result from individuals trying
to satisfy their need deficiencies
–Rewards and punishments are consequences of the
goal-directed behavior
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Historical Perspectives on Motivation
• The Traditional Approach
–“Scientific Management” (Frederick Taylor) assumes
that employees are motivated solely by money
• The Human Relations Approach
–Assumes employees’ needs outweigh money and that
fostering favorable employee attitudes (the illusion of
involvement) results in motivation
• The Human Resource Approach
–Assumes people want to make genuine contributions;
managers should encourage their participation by
providing the proper working environment conditions
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Need-Based Perspectives on Motivation
• Need-Based Theories of Motivation
–Assume that need deficiencies cause behavior
• The Hierarchy of Needs (Abraham Maslow)
–Assumes that human needs are arranged in a
hierarchy of importance.
• Basic (or deficiency) needs
– Physiological
– Security
– Belongingness
• Growth needs
– Esteem
– Self-actualization
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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4.2
The Hierarchy of Needs
Reference: Adapted from Abraham H. Maslow, “A Theory of Human
Motivation,” Psychological Review, 1943, vol. 50, pp. 374–396.
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• ERG Theory (Clayton Alderfer)
–Describes existence (E), relatedness (R), and
growth (G) needs
• Assumptions:
–More than one need may motivate a person at the
same time
–Satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression
components imply that a person may not stay at the
same level of need in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Need-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• The Dual-Structure Theory (Herzberg)
–Assumes that motivation, as a construct, has two
separate dimensions:
• Motivation factors which affect satisfaction
• Hygiene factors which determine dissatisfaction
–Assumes motivation occurs through job enrichment
once hygiene factors are addressed
–Criticisms:
• May be both method and culture bound
• Fails to account for individual differences
• Factors (e.g., pay) may affect both dimensions
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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4.3
The Dual-Structure Theory of Motivation
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Process-Based Perspectives on Motivation
• Other Important Needs
–The Need for Achievement (David McClelland)
• The desire to accomplish a task or goal more effectively than
was done in the past
–The Need for Affiliation
• The need for human companionship
–The Need for Power
• The desire to control the resources in one’s environment
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• Focus of Process-Based Perspectives
–Why people choose certain behavioral options to
satisfy their needs
–How people evaluate their satisfaction after they
have attained these goals
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• The Equity Theory of Motivation
– Focuses on the desire to be treated with equity and to
avoid perceived inequity
• Equity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated fairly in
relation to others
• Inequity is a perceptual belief that one is being treated unfairly
in relation to others
• The Equity Comparison
– Outcomes (self) compared with Outcomes (other)
Inputs (self)
Inputs (other)
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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4.4
Responses to Perceptions of Equity and Inequity
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Process-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• The Expectancy Theory of Motivation (Vroom)
–Motivation depends on how much we want something
and how likely we think we are to get it
• Key Components
Effort-to-performance
expectancy
The perceived probability that effort will
lead to performance
Performance-to-outcome The perceived probability that performance
expectancy
will lead to certain outcomes
Outcome
Anything that results from performing
a behavior
Valence
The degree of attractiveness or
unattractiveness (value) that a particular
outcome has for a person
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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4.5
The Expectancy Theory of Motivation
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Process-Based Perspectives…(cont’d)
• The Porter-Lawler Model
–Focuses on the relationship between satisfaction and
performance
–Assumes that:
• If rewards are adequate, high levels of performance may lead
to satisfaction.
• Satisfaction is determined by the perceived equity of intrinsic
(intangible) and extrinsic (tangible) rewards for performance.
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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4.6
The Porter-Lawler Model
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Guidelines for Using Expectancy Theory
• Determine the primary outcomes each employee wants
• Decide what levels/kinds of performance are needed to
meet organizational goals
• Make sure the desired levels of performance are
possible
• Link desired outcomes and desired performance
• Analyze the situation for conflicting expectancies
• Make sure the rewards are large enough
• Make sure the overall system is equitable for everyone
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Learning-Based Perspectives on Motivation
• Learning
–A relatively permanent change in behavior or
behavioral potential resulting from direct or indirect
experience
• How Learning Occurs
–Traditional View: Classical Conditioning
• A simple form of learning that links a conditioned response
with an unconditioned stimulus
–Contemporary View: Learning as a Cognitive Process
• Assumes people are conscious, active participants in how
they learn
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• Reinforcement Theory and Learning
–Operant Conditioning (Skinner)
• Behavior is a function of its consequences
• Reinforcement is the consequence of behavior
–Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement
A reward or other desirable consequence that
a person receives after exhibiting behavior
Negative reinforcement
(avoidance)
The opportunity to avoid or escape from an
unpleasant circumstance after exhibiting behavior
Extinction
Decreases the frequency of behavior by
eliminating a reward or desirable consequence
that follows that behavior
Punishment
An unpleasant or aversive consequence that
results from behavior
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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4.1
Schedules of Reinforcement
Schedule of Reinforcement
Nature of Reinforcement
Command Groups
Task Groups
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• Social Learning in Organizations
–Occurs when people observe the behaviors of others,
recognize their consequences, and alter their own
behavior as a result
–Conditions for social learning:
• Behavior being observed and imitated must be relatively
simple
• Observed and imitated behavior must be concrete, not
intellectual
• Learner must have the physical ability to imitate the observed
behavior
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Learning-Based Perspectives… (cont’d)
• Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod)
–The application of reinforcement theory to people in
organizational settings
• Effectiveness of OB Mod
–Varying results in organizational applications
–Lack of “real world” use
• Ethics of OB Mod
–Individual freedom of choice
–Employee manipulation
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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4.7
Steps in
Organizational
Behavior
Modification
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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Organizational Behavior in Action
• After reading the chapter opening case:
–Which needs does working at Netapp fulfill for its
employees?
–Is it really possible to have an organization where
almost all employees are (or appear be) satisfied?
–What advantages does Netapp have when seeking
people for employment? Disadvantages?
© 2012 South-Western, a part of Cengage Learning
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