Download Slides: CHAPTER 2

Chapter 2
Understanding and
Valuing Differences
A Rich Stew
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The modern workplace is much more than a
melting pot in which contents are transformed into
a uniform mass.
It is more like a rich stew, with ingredients varying
in origin and properties, providing different flavors,
nuances, and textures, and retaining their
character while contributing to the whole.
Many characteristics of these ingredients are
important, including race and ethnic origin, gender,
age, abilities, sexual orientation, personality,
attitudes, and much more.
A Rich Stew (Continued)
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As the ingredients become more varied, they offer
the potential for an expanded, more exotic and
exciting menu.
Still, it is a challenge to blend the ingredients in
ways that bring out their best properties.
And, a stew that is a delight to one person may
seem bland or bitter or simply unpalatable to
another.
In this chapter we explore the challenge of
recognizing and capturing the best qualities of
available ingredients -- valuing diversity -- while
creating a successful stew -- managing diversity.
Some Individual Differences
in Organizations
Demographic
Diversity
Attitudes
Individual
Differences
Perceptions
Personality
Cross-Cultural
Differences
Managing Diversity
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Diversity refers to the membership mix in
organizations in terms of gender, race, ethnic origin,
and other characteristics.
The Pillsbury Company defines diversity as “all the
ways in which we differ.”
Historically, many companies have focused on the
potential problems created by a diverse workforce.
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It was felt there would be more misunderstandings and
coordination problems as diversity increased.
Very real prejudices against members of certain groups,
such as blacks and women, could lead to conflict and
mistrust.
Increasingly, organizations are learning to value
diversity.
Valuing Diversity
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Diversity can provide a powerful competitive advantage.
A diverse workforce brings more perspectives and a wider
range of knowledge to bear on problems, increasing creativity
and decision-making effectiveness.
Diversity helps the firm understand and meet the needs of
diverse markets.
Companies that become successful at managing a diverse
workforce also see their recruiting prospects enhanced.
Active steps toward fostering diversity in the workplace include
training for tolerance, rewarding diversity efforts, changing
employee attitudes toward diversity, and developing supportive
personnel policies.
Focus on Management:
Diversity Awareness at Celanese
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Ernest Drew, the former CEO of Celanese, became an advocate
of a more diverse workforce while attending a conference for
Celanese’s top 125 officers, mostly white men, who were joined
by about 50 lower-level women and minorities.
The group split into problem-solving teams, some mixed by
race and sex and others all white and male, to address
questions relating to Celanese’s corporate culture.
When the teams presented their findings, one thing seemed
clear to Drew. “It was so obvious that the diverse teams had
the broader solutions. … For the first time, I realized that
diversity is a strength as it relates to problem solving.”
As a result, Drew made Celanese a pioneer in attracting,
retaining, and promoting women and minorities.
The Best Companies for Minorities
(From Figure 2-1)
Company
# of
% Minority
Minorities Officials &
on Board Managers
% Minority
Employees
McDonald’s
2 of 16
36%
52.6%
11 of 50 highest paid
employees are minorities.
35% of purchases from
minority-owned firms.
Fannie Mae
5 of 17
33%
44%
11 of 50 highest paid
employees are minorities.
Company offers broad
diversity training.
Denny’s
3 of 9
29%
47%
46% of franchises are
minority owned. Highest
proportion of employees
undergoing diversity
training.
Union Bank of
California
3 of 12
39%
55%
Sempra Energy 4 of 14
29%
48%
Comments
Training for Tolerance
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Firms are adopting many approaches toward
training for tolerance.
At Celanese, the top 26 officers are each
required to join two organizations in which they
are a minority.
Firms are also providing training to integrate
sexual orientation into ongoing diversity efforts.
Many firms are “gender training” to promote
tolerance between the sexes.
Rewarding Diversity Efforts
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Some firms are tying performance appraisal to
their efforts to increase diversity.
At Celanese, attainment of workforce diversity is
one of four sets of outcomes that are equally
weighted in performance appraisals.
Coca-Cola’s then chairman and CEO, Douglas
Daft, announced in 2000 that he would tie his
own compensation and that of others
throughout the management ranks to diversity
goals and would create an executive position for
promoting minorities.
Changing Employee Attitudes Toward
Diversity
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Companies are using a variety of innovative
approaches to develop more positive employee
diversity-related attitudes and skills.
US WEST Dex trains its employees via a threeday diversity awareness workshop.
US WEST Dex also uses “resource groups,”
volunteer-driven meetings that address the
concerns of particular employees, such as
women, blacks, Hispanics, gays, and lesbians; all
employees are encouraged to attend.
Focus on Management: Diversity
Seminars at Rohm & Haas Texas Inc.
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At Rohm & Haas cross-functional teams are part of total
quality efforts and were selected to take advantage of the
variety of experiences and perspectives offered by diversity.
However, as positions opened up on other teams, employees
began to migrate to teams composed of members with whom
they felt they had more in common; African American
employees, for example, would apply for teams with more
African American members.
Rohm & Haas launched five-hour awareness seminars that
stressed the benefits of diversity and focused on tension that
any kind of difference creates.
95% of employees participated, and the company credits the
seminars with getting its quality efforts back on track.
Developing Personnel Policies
That Support Diversity
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AT&T, which has announced major job cuts every year
since 1990, monitors workforce reduction by department
and finds creative ways to keep valued workers,
regardless of their gender or color.
Workers may be retrained for work elsewhere in AT&T or
assigned to the in-house temporary agency and loaned
out to various departments until permanent jobs are found
for them.
AT&T also offers valued laid-off employees an “enhanced
leave of absence” in which the employee takes two years
off to go to school or travel, with full benefits and
assurance of reemployment at the same level and pay if a
job in the company is available upon return.
The Bottom Line: Developing a
Diversity Program
Obtain the
Support of Top
Management
Foster a
Culture
That
Supports the
Diversity
Program
Develop a
Definition of
What Diversity
Means in the
Organization
Evaluate the
Diversity
Program and
Modify as
Needed
Identify Specific
Objectives for the
Diversity
Program
Implement
the
Diversity
Program
Educate All
Employees
Regarding
the
Diversity
Program
Develop the
Elements of the
Program That
Support
Diversity Goals
Identify
Measures of
the Diversity
Program’s
Effectiveness
Personality
Understanding Personality
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Personality is the organized and distinctive
pattern of behavior that characterizes an
individual’s adaptation to a situation and endures
over time.
The distinctive character of personality allows us
to tell people apart.
The enduring character of personality permits us
to recognize people and to anticipate their
behaviors.
Personality determines how people respond to
new situations and interact with others, whether
they can work on their own, and much else.
Aristotle’s Challenge
Anyone can become angry -- that is easy.
But to be angry with the right person, to
the right degree, at the right time, for the
right purpose, and in the right way -this is not easy.
ARISTOTLE, The Nichomachean Ethics
In The Nichomachean Ethics, Aristotle
presented a challenge to manage our
emotional life with intelligence. Our
passions, when well exercised, have
wisdom; they guide our thinking, our
values, our survival. The question is,
how can we bring intelligence to our
emotions?
The Marshmallow Test
 Children at age 4 were given an IQ test
and the “Marshmallow Test.” With the
Marshmallow Test, the child is given a
marshmallow and told that if s/he can
put off eating it until later, s/he can
have two.
 Twelve to fourteen years later, reaction to this moment
of impulse was twice as powerful a predictor as IQ of
how children did on the Scholastic Aptitude Test. It also
predicted adjustment, popularity, confidence, and
dependability.
Is IQ Enough?
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Most experts now agree that IQ scores are heavily
influenced by a relatively narrow range of linguistic
and math skills.
So, IQ taps only a small part of the structure of
intellect.
The skills tapped by IQ tests may be relevant to
classroom performance but less so as life’s path
diverges from academe.
This suggests the need to take a broader view of
intelligence.
How Do People Describe An
“Intelligent” Person?
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Solves problems well
Displays interest in the world at large
Accepts others for what they are
Admits mistakes
Is goal oriented
Converses well
Together, these suggest that people focus on
the practical and worldly side of intelligence,
rather than just on “academic” intelligence.
Some Forms of Intelligence
(Howard Gardner -- Frames of Mind)
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Logical-mathematical
Linguistic
Bodily-kinesthetic
Visual-spatial
Musical
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalist
“IQ”
“Emotional
Intelligence”
Personal Intelligences
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Interpersonal intelligence is the
ability to understand other people: what
motivates them, how they work, how to
work cooperatively with them.
Intrapersonal intelligence is the
capacity to form an accurate model of
oneself and to be able to use that
model to operate effectively in life.
What Is Emotional Intelligence?
“Emotional intelligence is a phrase for a
different way of being smart. It’s not the
usual way of thinking about it -- academic
smarts -- IQ -- it’s how you do in life, how
you manage yourself, your feelings, how
you get along with other people, whether
you’re empathic, how well motivated you
are.”
Daniel Goleman, author
Emotional Intelligence
Two “Brains”
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The amygdala -- the
“emotional brain,” the
source of emotional
life
The neocortex -- the
“thinking cap,” source
of planning, learning,
and memory
The amygdala is deep within the most
elemental parts of the brain.
Questions Calling for EQ
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Should you trust a coworker with a
confidence?
Is a friend on the verge of a nervous
breakdown?
How should you behave in an escalating
argument?
How should you respond to a racist
joke?
Why Care About Emotional Intelligence?
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The emotional brain may “highjack” the rational
brain. Fear, rage, and jealousy may prevent us
from rationally addressing problems.
EQ is especially important in higher-level jobs,
including leadership roles. While technical skills
may suffice in lower-level positions, the ability to
deal with others becomes critical as we advance in
organizations.
EQ is critical for working in groups.
EQ is needed to effectively manage diversity.
EQ helps us adapt to new situations.
Key Emotional Intelligence Abilities
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Self-Awareness -- Recognizing an emotion as it
engulfs us;
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Emotion Management -- Controlling reactions
to emotion-laden events so that our response fits
the situation;
Self-Motivation -- Directing emotions in service
of a desirable goal;
Empathy -- Recognizing emotions in others;
Relationship Management -- Managing the
emotions in others.
Some Consequences of EQ
In business settings, EQ has been found
to be related to:
 leadership ability
 group performance
 individual performance
 interpersonal/social exchange
 change management skills
 ability to conduct performance
appraisals
Multiple Intelligences at Saturn Corp.
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At Saturn Corp., all 10,000 employees are
required to take 92 hours of instruction each
year.
They first learn about the multiple
intelligences.
They then select courses of their choosing,
such as safety or leadership.
Instructors adapt multiple-intelligence training
to the programs. They might, for instance,
use music to enhance technical training
courses.
Personality Theories
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Some early personality theories saw
behavior as being related to innate
traits, such as independence,
sociability, and humility. These traits
were felt to be stable, enduring, and
interrelated. The unique combination
of these traits was seen as a clue to
personality.
According to Sigmund Freud’s
psychoanalytic theory, we are
motivated by drives or instincts. We
may be unaware of these drives, and
they are largely outside our control.
Personality Theories (Continued)
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Humanistic-existential theories focus on the
total personality of the individual rather than on the
separate behaviors that make up the personality.
They emphasize striving for awareness and
fulfillment of human potential.
Learning theories see personality as a set of
patterns of learned behaviors. That is, personalities
differ because people have different experiences in
childhood and throughout life.
Together, the approaches provide a variety of
potentially useful perspectives for examining and
predicting human behavior.
Some Key Personality
Dimensions
Risk-Taking
Propensity
The “Big 5”
Type A and
Type B
SelfMonitoring
Proactive
Personality
PERSONALITY
Authoritarianism
Machiavellianism
Tolerance for
Ambiguity
Dogmatism
Locus of
Control
Risk-Taking Propensity
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People differ markedly in their risk-taking
propensity.
Some are risk averse; they like to “play it safe,”
choosing alternatives that are likely to give a
relatively low but certain return.
Others -- risk seekers -- like to gamble. They
prefer alternatives that may turn out very well or
very poorly.
Risk seekers tend to make fast decisions based on
relatively little information.
Proactive Personality
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Proactivity is the extent to which people take
actions to influence their environments/
Proactive individuals look for opportunities, show
initiative, take action, and persevere until they
are able to bring about change.
Proactive individuals have been shown to engage
in high levels of entrepreneurial activities and to
have relatively high levels of job performance.
This is a trait that is highly valued by employers.
Authoritarianism
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Authoritarian individuals believe that power and
status should be clearly defined and that there should
be a hierarchy of authority.
They feel that authority should be concentrated in the
hands of a few leaders and that this authority should
be obeyed.
Authoritarian leaders expect unquestioning obedience
to their commands.
Authoritarian subordinates willingly give obedience.
Authoritarian individuals are likely to be comfortable in
organizations that emphasize rules and the chain of
command.
Dogmatism
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Dogmatic individuals are closed-minded.
They have rigid belief systems and “doggedly” stick
to their opinions, refusing to revise them in the face
of conflicting evidence.
Dogmatic individuals make decisions quickly, based
on relatively little information, and are confident in
their decisions.
They like to follow the rules and are unlikely to
consider novel alternatives.
They may perform acceptably in well-defined,
routine situations, but do poorly in situations
requiring creativity.
Locus of Control
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Locus of control is an indicator of an individual’s
sense of control over the environment and external
events.
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A person with an internal locus of control feels in control
of his or her life.
A person with an external locus of control feels
controlled by fate, chance, and circumstance.
Internals are generally more highly motivated than
externals.
Leaders who are internal tend to choose more
innovative strategies and to be more proactive and
future oriented.
Tolerance for Ambiguity
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Individuals with high tolerance for ambiguity
welcome uncertainty and change.
Those with low tolerance for ambiguity see such
situations as threatening and uncomfortable.
Since managers are increasingly facing dynamic,
unstructured situations, tolerance for ambiguity
is clearly an important characteristic.
Machiavellianism
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Machiavellians:
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NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI
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think any behavior is
acceptable if it achieves their
goals
try to manipulate others
are unemotional and detached
“look out for Number One”
aren’t likely to be good team
players
are relatively likely to be
unethical
Web Wise: Machiavelli’s The Prince
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The term Machiavellian comes from Niccolo
Machiavelli, author of The Prince. Machiavelli
wrote The Prince as a practical guide for the
ruling Medici family on how to deal with the
problems a monarch faces in staying in power.
The main theme of the book is that princes
should retain absolute control of their
territories and should use any means
necessary to accomplish this end, including
deceit.
The book has caused Machiavelli’s name to
become synonymous with self-serving,
manipulative, deceitful behavior.
Self-Monitoring
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Self-monitoring is a person’s ability to
adjust his or her behavior to external,
situational factors.
High self-monitors:
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are very sensitive to external cues and are
“chameleon-like.”
can present striking contradictions between
their public and private lives -- are capable of
“disguise.”
are effective in “boundary role” situations and
other situations requiring multiple “faces.”
High self-monitors are more likely to
assume leadership roles than low selfmonitors
Type A and Type B
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Type A individuals:
feel great time pressure and impatience.
 work aggressively, speak explosively, and find
themselves constantly struggling.
Type B individuals show the opposite pattern -- relaxed,
steady-paced, and easygoing.
Type A individuals:
 are much more likely than Type B’s to experience high
stress levels and associated symptoms, including
coronary heart disease.
 have trouble delegating responsibility to others, don’t
work well in groups, and are impatient with tasks
requiring prolonged problem solving.
Relatively few Type A’s rise to high levels in organizations.
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The “Big 5” Model
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Extraversion: Sociable, talkative, assertive
Agreeableness: Good-natured, cooperative,
trusting
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Conscientiousness: Responsible, dependable,
persistent, achievement oriented
Emotional Stability: Calm, enthusiastic,
secure
Openness to Experience: Imaginative,
artistically sensitive, intellectual
The “Big 5” and Performance
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Extraverts tend to take on leadership
roles.
Agreeableness is especially significant in
careers where teamwork or customer
service is important.
Conscientious individuals have high levels
of job performance.
Openness to experience is related to
performance in training programs.
Why Care About Globalization?
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You are likely to spend part of your career in other
countries.
According to Andrew Grove, with globalization “every
employee will compete with every person in the world
who is capable of doing the same job. There are a lot
of them, and many of them are very hungry.”
You may suddenly find yourself working for a foreign
firm.
Your firm -- and your job -- will increasingly depend
on international trade.
You will be managing a culturally diverse workforce
even if you never leave the U.S.
Diversity on the New York Yankees
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During the 1998 season New York Yankees
pitching coach Mel Stottlemeyer did a
masterful job of overseeing one of the most
international pitching staffs in major league
baseball.
The staff included Graeme Lloyd from
Australia, Orlando “El Duque” Hernandez
from Cuba, Hideki Irabu from Japan, and
Ramiro Mendoza and Mariano Rivera from
Panama.
They led the Yankees to 114 wins, the most
in American League history.
The Hofstede Framework
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Geert Hofstede, a Dutch researcher who
worked as a psychologist for IBM, studied
116,000 people working in 64 countries.
He identified five important dimensions on
which national cultures differ.
The Hofstede Framework
Time
Orientation
Quality Versus
Quantity of Life
Individualism vs.
Collectivism
National
Culture
Uncertainty
Avoidance
Power
Distance
Individualism and Collectivism
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Individualism refers to a loosely knit social framework in
which people are chiefly supposed to look after their own
interests and those of their immediate family. The society
offers individuals a great amount of freedom.
Collectivism refers to a tight social framework in which
people expect other groups to which they belong to look
after them and protect them in times of trouble. In
exchange for security, they offer loyalty. “The nail that
sticks out will be pounded down.”
Individualistic countries include Australia, the U.S., Great
Britain, and the Netherlands. Collectivist countries include
Columbia, Pakistan, Venezuela, Peru, and Taiwan.
Power Distance
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Power Distance is the degree to which a society
accepts the fact that power in institutions and
organizations is distributed unequally.
A high-power-distance society accepts wide differences in
power in organizations. Employees show great respect for
authority, titles, status, and rank. Titles are important in
bargaining.
 A low-power-distance society plays down inequalities as
much as possible.
High-power-distance countries include the Philippines,
Mexico, and India. Low-power-distance countries include
Denmark, Israel, and Ireland.
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Uncertainty Avoidance
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Uncertainty Avoidance refers to the way societies deal with
uncertainty.
 In low-uncertainty-avoidance countries people are relatively
comfortable with risks, and are more tolerant of behavior
and opinions that differ from their own.
 In high-uncertainty-avoidance countries, there is a high level
of anxiety among the people.
 Formal rules and other mechanisms are created to
provide security and reduce risk.
 There is less tolerance of deviant ideas and behaviors.
 Members strive to believe in absolute truths.
Low-uncertainty-avoidance countries include Switzerland &
Denmark. High-uncertainty-avoidance countries include Japan
& Greece.
Quality Versus Quantity of Life
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Some cultures emphasize the quantity of life and
value assertiveness and the acquisition of money
and natural things.
Some cultures emphasize the quality of life and
the importance of relationships, and show
sensitivity and concern for the welfare of others.
Japan and Austria score high on quantity of life.
Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and Finland score high
on quality of life.
Time Orientation
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A long-term orientation is derived from
values of thrift (saving) and persistence in
achieving goals.
A short-term orientation is derived from
values that express a concern for maintaining
personal stability or happiness and living for the
present.
Japan and Hong Kong have a long-term
orientation, while France and Indonesia have a
short-term orientation.
High-Context and Low-Context Cultures
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Another key factor is whether cultures are high or low
context.
In a high-context culture, such as most Asian,
Hispanic, African, and Arab countries, the context in
which communication occurs is just as important as
the words that are actually spoken, and cultural clues
are important in understanding what is being
communicated. The context includes the social
setting, use of phrasing, gestures, and tone of voice,
and the person’s history and status.
In a low-context culture, such as Germany and the
U.S., the words used by the speaker explicitly convey
the speaker’s message to the listener.
Context and Nonverbal Communications
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Nonverbal communications are especially important in highcontext cultures. Most immigrants to the U.S. are now coming
from high-context cultures.
Nonverbal communications have dramatically different
meanings across cultures. For example:
 Nodding your head means “Yes” in most countries but “No”
in Bulgaria and Greece.
 The classic “OK” sign of thumb and forefinger forming a
circle can imply “money” in Japan, means “worthless” in
France, and is considered an obscene gesture in Brazil,
Germany, and Russia.
 In Saudi Arabia, to cross your legs in such a way as to
display the sole of your foot to your host is a grievous
affront.
 Americans expect eye contact in a conversation, but
Hispanics consider eye contact, especially with a superior, to
be disrespectful.
The Bottom Line:
Managing Cross-Cultural Differences
Develop an
Understanding of
the Cultural Beliefs
and Practices
of Others
Maintain a Flexible
and Open-Minded
Attitude to
Managing People
Discuss Misunderstandings
or Conflicts that Occur Due to
Cross-Cultural Differences
in Order To Enhance Mutual
Understanding
Demonstrate
Respect for
Cross-Cultural
Differences in
Employees
Be Sensitive to How
Others May Have
Differing
Interpretations of
Your Statements
and Actions
Maintaining Accurate Perceptions
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We all live in our own world.
It is a world created by our attempts to sift through,
to organize, and to interpret the tremendous number
of things we see, hear, feel, and otherwise constantly
sense.
It is different from all other worlds -- the unique
product of a complex process.
The “truth” in our world depends on whether
something is consistent with the rest of that world.
The nature of our unique world helps determine how
we behave.
The Perceptual Process
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Perception is the complex process by which we
select, organize, and interpret sensory stimuli into
a meaningful and coherent picture of the world.
The perceptual process involves several steps,
including sensation, selection, organization, and
translation.
In the first step, sensation, many stimuli impact on
our sensory filters, but only some are sensed.
Others are filtered out, perhaps because they are
at very low levels or are not in a particular range.
The Perceptual Process
(Figure 2-2)
Stimuli
Sensation
Selection
Physiological
Reaction to
Stimuli
Conscious
Awareness
of Stimuli
Organization
Translation
Placement of
Interpretation
Selected
of Stimuli
Stimuli into a
Framework
for Storage
Selecting Stimuli
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If our perceptions were not selective,
we would be overwhelmed.
Many factors affect selection, some of
which are potentially troublesome.
Perceptual readiness causes us to
see things we expect to see.
Different people will select stimuli based
on their needs and personalities.
Stimuli that contrast with the
surrounding environment are more
likely to be selected.
Repetition of a stimulus makes it more
likely to be perceived.
Organizing Stimuli
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Once stimuli have been selected, they must
be organized in a useful framework.
Things we group together tend to be recalled
together, and their meanings tend to
influence one another.
In general, we are likely to group things that
are somehow similar.
We tend to organize things so closure occurs.
That is, we “close up” or “fill in” missing parts
to create a meaningful whole.
Interpreting Stimuli
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We interpret stimuli at the translation step of the
perceptual process.
The way we interpret the stimuli we have selected and
organized depends on the situation, our characteristics,
and the characteristics of the thing being perceived.
Many distortions of objective reality are possible at the
translation stage. Some of these, such as the Hering
illusion, are simply due to quirks in the way our senses
work.
Other distortions are more subtle but no less
important. These include stereotyping, Pygmalion
effect, halo effect, projection, primacy/recency effects,
and perceptual defense.
The Hering Illusion
(Figure 2-4)
The “Hering Illusion” illustrates a quirk in the way
our senses work. Two parallel lines appear curved
because of the nature of their background.
Stereotyping





Walter Lippmann coined the term stereotyping in 1922,
describing stereotypes as “pictures in people’s heads” that
distorted their perceptions of others.
The term is now often used to mean the forming of an
opinion of people based on group membership.
Stereotyping, if accurate, may be useful since it efficiently
places information into categories. When we face new
situations, stereotypes provide guidelines to help classify
people.
Unfortunately, stereotyping may lead to a distorted view of
the situation if stereotyping is based on false premises.
Stereotyping in work organizations may be harmful to
minority group members, older workers, and females.
Pygmalion Effect




Pygmalion effect refers to creating
something in the image we have of it.
It is a prime example of self-fulfilling prophecy.
Teachers, managers, and others often
demonstrate this effect.
For instance, teachers who were told that
certain students were especially intelligent
(when, in fact, they were not) later perceived
those students to show signs of greater
intelligence and higher performance. As a
result, they treated them differently. These
“intelligent” students then showed gains in
intellectual capacity, while others did not.
Pygmalion and
Galatea
Halo Effect




Halo Effect refers to a process in which a judge uses a
general impression that is favorable or unfavorable (a
“horns effect”) to evaluate specific traits.
Sometimes one trait, such as a subordinate’s enthusiasm,
forms the halo.
So, if the boss feels the subordinate is enthusiastic, he or
she may also see the subordinate as loyal, efficient,
courteous, and so on.
If we make evaluations on the basis of a halo and the
traits aren’t really linked, the result is halo error.
Other Perceptual Distortions



Projection is the tendency to project our own
characteristics on others. For instance, if we feel fearful,
we may perceive others as fearful. People with traits such
as stinginess or obstinacy tend to rate others as relatively
high on these traits.
Primacy/Recency Effects. We give especially heavy
weight to stimuli we receive early (a primacy effect) or
recently (a recency effect). Intermediate stimuli receive
less weight.
Perceptual Defense. When we face information we find
to be threatening or unacceptable, our perceptions try to
defend us. We may fail to perceive the troublesome
stimuli, or we may distort our perceptions of the stimuli to
make them less troublesome.
Implicit Theories





Implicit theories are theories in people’s minds.
For instance, we may believe that jobs offering more
challenge also offer more authority. Or we may
believe that leaders who let their subordinates
participate more in decision making also care more
about their subordinates.
These implicit theories may be correct or incorrect.
Implicit theories may influence perceptions at the
selection, organization, and translation stages.
For instance, if we see evidence concerning one
element of the theory, we are likely to perceive other
elements also.
Causal Attribution


Causal attribution is the process of forming
perceptions about the causes underlying others’
behaviors.
Causal attribution may be especially important to
determine whether the behaviors were the result of
internal factors, such as the person’s motives or traits,
or of external factors, such as luck or the situation.
Causal Attribution (Cont.)

According to attribution theory, we try to sort out
the causes of an individual’s behavior by considering
three factors:




Did others act the same way in the same situation?
Does this person always act this way in this situation?
Does this person act differently in other situations?
This process is prone to error. For instance, we tend
to attribute the behavior of others to internal factors,
even when this is not appropriate. Also, self-serving
bias -- the tendency to take credit for successes and
deny personal responsibility for failures -- is often
seen.
Focus on Management:
Attribution Theory at Boots the Chemist




Boots the Chemist, a British pharmaceutical firm,
wanted a test to select potential sales assistants.
It developed a new questionnaire based on
attribution theory.
It was predicted -- and shown in subsequent
research -- that the most successful sales
performers and those rated most highly for their
customer care would be more likely to attribute
outcomes to controllable factors, such as their own
effort or choice of sales strategies.
The questionnaire is now used in the selection
process for sales assistants and to help identify
developmental needs.
Reducing Perceptual Errors




People who are aware of their own characteristics
make fewer errors in perceiving others and are less
likely to see the world in black-and-white terms.
People who are able to accept themselves as they
are can see a wider range of characteristics in
others and may be less prone to projection.
Simple knowledge of such tendencies as halo error,
stereotyping, and self-serving bias may help to
avoid them.
It is important to make a conscious effort to attend
to relevant information and to test reality.
The Bottom Line:
Increasing Perceptual Accuracy
Talk to All Parties
Involved in the
Situation
Individually -Emphasize Obtaining
Objective Information
Meet with the Parties
Involved as a Group
to Develop a Mutual
Understanding of
the Issues at Hand
Maintain an OpenMinded Attitude
and Do Not Jump
to Conclusions
Prematurely
Be Aware of Your
Own Biases and
Assumptions in
Trying to
Understand the
Situation
Formulate Your
Overall View
of the Situation
Develop an
Understanding of
How Others View
the Situation from
Their Perspectives
Attitudes
Attitudes are the beliefs, feelings, and
behavioral tendencies held by a person
about an object, event, or person (called the
attitude object).
The Components of Attitudes



The cognitive component of attitudes is our
cognitions, or beliefs about the facts pertaining to
the attitude object. This is descriptive information
rather than liking or intentions.
The affective component of attitudes is made
up of our feelings toward the attitude object. The
affective component involves evaluation and
emotion.
The behavioral tendency component of
attitudes is the way we intend to behave toward
the attitude object.
The Components of Attitudes
(Figure 2-5)
Cognitive
Affective
Behavioral
Tendency
Why Care About Attitudes?



Attitudes may influence work behaviors, such as
turnover or absenteeism.
Attitudes may influence things of direct concern
to the employee, such as stress levels, ability to
sleep, and attitudes toward other aspects of life.
Attitudes are important for their own sake,
independent of their consequences. Employees
spend half their waking lives at work.
Some Potential Relationships of
Attitudes to Behaviors (Figure 2-6)
Attitudes
Behaviors
WORK QUALITY
COGNITIVE
COMPONENT
ABSENTEEISM
AFFECTIVE
COMPONENT
TURNOVER
ACCIDENTS
BEHAVIORA
L
TENDENCY
COMPONENT
SABOTAGE
Job Satisfaction



Job satisfaction is the affective component of
work-related attitudes.
Quite simply, it is how employees feel about
their jobs.
Managers may be concerned about employees’
satisfaction with specific facets of the job, as
well as about their overall job satisfaction.
Job Facet Satisfaction and Overall
Satisfaction (Figure 2-7)
Satisfactio
n
With
Promotions
Satisfactio
n
With Pay
Satisfactio
n
With
Coworkers
Overall Job
Satisfaction
Satisfactio
n
With Work
Itself
Satisfactio
n
With
Supervisio
n
Measuring Job Satisfaction




Measuring job satisfaction provides information
concerning what is, and isn’t, being done correctly
in the workplace.
The most popular approach to measuring job
satisfaction is to use standardized scales. They
have been widely used and tested, and norm data
are often available.
The Job Descriptive Index (JDI) is the best-known
scale to measure facets of job satisfaction.
It is often helpful to assess overall job satisfaction
as well.
Measuring Job Satisfaction (Cont.)




In addition to paper-and-pencil tests, satisfaction may
be assessed by use of the critical incidents method,
interviews, or confrontation meetings.
The critical incidents method as applied to
measuring job satisfaction asks employees to recall
incidents that were particularly satisfying or
dissatisfying to them.
Interviews allow in-depth questioning about the
nature and causes of sources of satisfaction or
dissatisfaction.
Confrontation meetings bring together groups of
employees who are encouraged to openly express
their feelings about their jobs.
Job Descriptive Index: Supervision Subscale
Sample Items (Figure 2-8)
The following adjectives and phrases describe five aspects of a job: the
work itself, supervision, pay, promotions, and coworkers. Carefully
consider each adjective or phrase and indicate whether or not it is true of
your job by circling:
Y
?
N
for YES, this is true of my job.
for I cannot decide if this is true of my job.
for NO, this is not true of my job.
The Supervision on My Job
Asks my advice ……………………
Hard to please ……………………..
Impolite ……………………………..
Influential …………………………...
Stubborn ……………………………
Knows job well …………………….
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
Y
?
?
?
?
?
?
N
N
N
N
N
N
Determinants of Job Satisfaction



There are two primary views of the determinants of job
satisfaction -- situational and dispositional.
The situational perspective sees satisfaction as largely due
to things in the environment of the employee, such as the
nature of the job, reward system and supervision. If this view
is correct, it may be possible to influence satisfaction levels by
changing such things.
The dispositional perspective sees satisfaction as due to
individual factors -- some people are simply more satisfied in
general than are others -- and thus as relatively stable and
more difficult to change. If this view is valid, varying the
situation may have little impact on satisfaction.
Situational Determinants of Satisfaction



Many work-related factors influence job
satisfaction (see Figure 2-9).
Among these, equitable rewards, work
itself, and others in the organization (such
as the supervisor) are quite important.
We examine the specific roles of many of
these factors in later chapters.
Dispositional Determinants of Satisfaction




A direct approach to examining the dispositional perspective is
simply to measure the degree to which people seem to be
generally positive or negative in their outlooks.
These are called positive affectivity and negative
affectivity. Research consistently shows these measures to
predict levels of job satisfaction.
The dispositional view is also supported by studies that follow
people as they move across jobs through their lives; one study
found overall attitudes to be quite stable over a period of nearly
50 years.
Another interesting approach to examining the dispositional
view looks at identical twins reared apart. One famous study
found identical twins reared apart to have considerable
similarity in satisfaction levels despite different jobs.
Work-Related Influences on Satisfaction
(From Figure 2-9)
Work Factors

Work Itself
 Challenge
 Physical Demands
 Personal Interest

Reward Structure

Working Conditions
 Physical
 Goal Attainment



Others in the
Organization
Organization and
Management
Fringe Benefits
Effects
Mentally challenging work that the individual can
successfully accomplish is satisfying.
Tiring work is dissatisfying.
Personally interesting work is satisfying.
Rewards that are equitable and that provie accurate
feedback on performance are satisfying.
Satisfaction depends on the match between working
conditions and physical needs.
Working conditions that permit goal attainment are
satisfying.
Individuals will be satisfied with other in the
organization who help them attain rewards, and with
those who see things the same way they do.
Individuals will be satisfied with organizations that have
policies and procedures designed to help them attain
rewards. They will be dissatisfied with conflicting
and/or ambiguous roles.
Fringe benefits do not have a strong influence on job
satisfaction for most employees.
The Bottom Line:
Enhancing Employee Job Satisfaction
Assess Employee
Satisfaction with
Various Job Facets
Implement the
Strategies
Identify Job Facets
with Which
Employees are
Highly Satisfied or
Highly Dissatisfied
Develop an Understanding of the
Underlying Causes of
the Employees’
Satisfaction or
Dissatisfaction
Develop Strategies
for Maintaining
Satisfaction with
Job Facets for
Which Employees
Are Now Satisfied
Develop Strategies
for Enhancing
Satisfaction with Job
Facets for Which
Employees are Not
Currently Satisfied
Job Involvement


Job involvement is the degree to which employees
really are involved with -- that is, “get into” -- their
jobs. Job involvement is high when the job is very
important in the person’s life and central to the
person’s self-concept.
Statements reflecting high job involvement include:





The most important things that happen to me involve my
job.
The major satisfaction of my life comes from my job.
I live, eat, and breathe my job.
Companies want their employees to be involved in
their jobs, but overly high levels of job involvement
may be undesirable.
Work involvement relates to work in general rather
than the specific job.
Work Involvement Across Cultures


Americans work longer hours and take less leisure
time off than peoples of other advanced nations.
The average hours worked per year in 2001 were:





1,877 in the United States
1,840 in Japan
1,708 in Great Britain
1,596 in France
1,480 in Germany
Organizational Commitment

Organizational commitment reflects
the degree to which the employee shows:



(1) a strong desire to remain as a
member of the organization
(2) a willingness to exert high levels of
effort on behalf of the organization
(3) a belief in, and acceptance of, the
values and goals of the organization.
Organizational Commitment (Cont.)



Affective commitment is an emotional attachment
characterized by strong affective ties to the
organization and psychological identification with it. It
flows from liking the firm, sharing its values, and
caring about its fate.
Continuance commitment results from
consideration of the benefits of organizational
membership and the perceived costs of leaving. It
flows from the belief that one needs to stay with the
firm since better alternatives are lacking.
High levels of organizational commitment, while
generally desirable, may cause poor-performing
employees to be reluctant to leave, may stifle dissent,
and may even lead to illegal or unethical acts.
Real and Expressed Attitudes




People’s expressed attitudes may differ dramatically
from their true attitudes.
People may hide or falsely report their true attitudes
because they feel the attitudes may be unpopular or
somehow lead to retribution.
Further, they may attempt to disguise their emotions,
since emotions reflect attitudes.
In many cases, employees are required to express
certain emotions as part of their work roles, such as
employees who are told they must smile. As such,
these employees’ smiles say nothing about their true
feelings.
Do Attitudes Cause Behaviors?




Many researchers have found surprisingly weak links
between attitudes and behaviors.
One reason for this is that people may have no choice
but to behave in certain ways. They may, for instance,
stay on jobs they hate because they have no alternatives.
It is important to recognize that a person’s behavior
depends on many things beyond attitude, including
pressures exerted by others, the nature of the job
market, and personality characteristics.
On the other hand, research may underestimate the
strength of the linkage of attitudes to behaviors if people
don’t reveal their true attitudes or the measures of
attitudes or behaviors are poor.
When Do Attitudes Best Predict Behaviors?
In general, attitudes will best predict behaviors
when:
 The attitude is specific to the behavior.
 The attitude is potent.
 The attitude is salient (that is, more noticeable
or prominent in our attention).
 The behavior is not constrained or subject to
other influences.
Some Potential Consequences of
Dissatisfaction (Figure 2-10)
Channel off
Frustration
Continued
Dissatisfaction
Frustration
Displacement
Strike Back at
Source of
Frustration
Accusation
Negativism
Informal Groups
Strikes
Sabotage
Try to Minimize
Impact of
Frustration
Apathy
Rationalizing
Leave the
Source of
Frustration
Daydreaming
Tardiness
Absenteeism
Turnover
Satisfaction and Turnover




Costs of turnover include disruption of the work process, the
loss of employees with valuable skills, knowledge, and
experience, and low productivity of new employees during the
training period.
In some industries, turnover rates may exceed 100% annually.
Overall, voluntary turnover rates were 20.3% in 2002.
Research clearly shows that more satisfied workers are less
likely to leave the firm. A little over 15% of the variance in
turnover is related to variance in satisfaction.
The relationship of satisfaction to turnover is indirect and is
influenced by many pressures and factors, such as wishes of
family members, feelings about the community, aversion to
change, and economic conditions.
A Model of the Relationship of
Satisfaction to Turnover (Figure 2-11)
Job
Satisfaction
Thoughts
of Quitting
Age/
Tenure
Probability of
Finding Another
Acceptable Job
Intention to
Search for
New Job
Intention to
Quit/Stay
Quit/
Stay
Satisfaction and Absenteeism






Absenteeism can be quite costly for companies. Typically,
companies continue to pay absent employees. Also,
absenteeism causes costly disruptions, such as the need to
reschedule work and reassign employees.
One estimate is that such disruptions cause productivity to drop
by as much as 2.5% for every 1% increase in absenteeism.
An estimated 400 million person-days are lost annually to
absenteeism, at a cost of $25 billion.
In 2002, overall absence rates were 4.12% and absenteeism
cost firms an average of $789 per employee.
Satisfaction and absenteeism are negatively related, though the
association is not as strong as we might expect.
While job satisfaction may influence motivation to attend,
attendance also depends on pressure to attend and ability to
attend.
A Model of the Relationship of
Satisfaction to Attendance (Figure 2-12)
Ability to
Attend
Job
Satisfaction
Motivation
to Attend
Pressure to
Attend
Attendance
Satisfaction and Performance



While it seems reasonable to expect that satisfied
workers would be more productive, many studies
show this is not the case, at least to any appreciable
degree.
Early studies of the satisfaction - performance
relationship concluded that the relationship is so low
as to be negligible; a major statistical summary of
previous research showed that only about 3% of the
variance in performance was associated with variance
in satisfaction.
While the traditional view of this relationship viewed
satisfaction as causing performance, it may be the
case that performance causes satisfaction.
Satisfaction and Performance
(Continued)




According to this view, performance levels affect the rewards
people receive. If employees feel their rewards are fair, they
will be satisfied. If not, they will be dissatisfied.
If this model is correct, why aren’t satisfaction-performance
relationships stronger? Quite simply, because some
companies don’t properly reward employees.
Most studies of the satisfaction - performance relationship
have used a narrow definition of performance, such as
quantity of output.
Research shows that broader measures of performance -such as organizational citizenship behaviors -- are more
directly caused by satisfaction.
Two Views of the SatisfactionPerformance Relationship (Figure 2-13)
(a) View 1: Satisfaction Causes Performance
Satisfaction
Effort
Performance
(b) View 2: Performance Causes Satisfaction
Perceived
Equitable Rewards
Performance
Effort
Satisfaction
Satisfaction and Work Violence





Workplace violence, including homicide, is increasing. Homicide
is now the number-3 work-related cause of death, and is the
leading cause of death for women in the workplace.
An estimated 1.7 million workers are injured in nonfatal
workplace assaults annually and more than 1,000 are
murdered.
Dissatisfaction does play a role in this violence. Violence is
especially great in regimented settings, such as post offices,
where employees feel they have no control over their work.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have formally
declared workplace homicide an epidemic.
Some firms, such as IBM, are training managers to recognize
aggressive behavior and effectively deal with it through
communication and conflict management.
Satisfaction and Nonwork Life

Some possible relationships of job satisfaction to
satisfaction with nonwork life include:




Perhaps job satisfaction carries over to nonwork satisfaction
(a “spillover” view).
Perhaps employees who are satisfied at work devote so
much time and energy at work that they ignore other
aspects of their lives, resulting in low satisfaction with
nonwork life.
Perhaps employees compensate for dissatisfaction at work
by focusing more on home life and finding satisfaction there.
Most research supports the spillover view that
satisfaction in one sphere of life seems to increase
satisfaction in other spheres.
The Financial Impact of Attitudes




The area of behavioral accounting is trying to
assess the financial impact of attitudes.
It does this by examining the costs of such behaviors
as turnover and absenteeism and the strength of
their links to attitudes.
One study used behavioral accounting to estimate
the costs of absenteeism, turnover, and balancing
shortages of 160 bank tellers.
The study concluded that moderate improvements in
attitudes averaging perhaps 0.7 on a seven-point
scale would yield the bank savings of $781,892, or
$4,886.83 per employee.
The Role of Mood






Mood is a transient mental state or attitude, perhaps
caused by something as fleeting as a sunny day,
convenient parking spot, or good meal.
Mood can affect job satisfaction as well as behaviors.
People who are in a good mood do helpful things.
Interestingly, bad mood also often leads to helping
behaviors; helping others makes us feel better about
ourselves.
Helping softens a bad mood and sustains a good
mood.
Important work behaviors such as prosocial behaviors
may be heavily influenced by mood.
Do Behaviors Cause Attitudes?
Behaviors may cause attitudes by:
 Dissonance reduction. Cognitive dissonance is an
uncomfortable situation in which we have conflicting
thoughts, such as “I don’t like my job, but I stay on
it.” To reduce the dissonance, we may change one or
both cognitions to make them consistent. So, we may
change our attitudes to make them consistent with
our behaviors.
 Consequences of behavior. Behaviors may lead to
consequences that affect attitudes. For example,
performance may lead to a pay increase which may
lead to increased satisfaction with pay.
Do Behaviors Cause Attitudes? (Cont.)


Self-Attribution. Behaving in a certain way can lead us to
make corresponding attributions about ourselves. For
example, smiling (for no good reason) can apparently
induce a good mood and increase willingness to laugh at
humorous material. Even though we’re playing a role, we
seem to internalize the attitudes and moods that maintain
the role.
Indoctrination. Brainwashing and cult recruitment are
two forms of indoctrination that have proven to be effective.
In brainwashing, for instance, torture or threat may be used
to cause victims to yield to their oppressors’ cause. As
victims engage in the behavior and pressure is reduced,
they come to infer that the behavior was voluntary, and
their attitudes change accordingly.