Download Job Enrichment - Binus Repository

Matakuliah : L0064 / Psikologi Industri &
Organisasi 1
Tahun
: 2007 / 2008
MOTIVASI, KEPUASAN KERJA & JOB
INVOLVEMENT
PERTEMUAN 12 & 13
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
1. Explain the content theories of motivation, including
achievement, needs hierarch, motivator-hygiene, and
job-characteristics theories
2. Explain the process theories of motivation, including
expectancy, equity, and goal-setting theories
3. Understand job satisfaction, its measurement, its
relationship to job performance, and the mediating effect
of personal characteristics
4. Describe the personal impact of job loss
5. Apply motivation theories to predict the effect of pay
equity issues, merit pay, and wage-incentive systems
6. Compare and contrast job involvement and job
commitment
Theories of Motivation
• Content theories
– Focus on the importance of work itself, dealing with the specific
needs that motivate and direct behavior
• Process theories
– Deal with the cognitive processes we use in making decisions
and choices about our work
Content Theories of Motivation
•
•
•
•
•
Achievement motivation theory
Needs-hierarchy theory
ERG theory
Motivator-hygiene (two-factor) theory
Job characteristics theory
Achievement Motivation Theory
McClelland (1961)
• Emphasizes the need to accomplish something, to
do a good job, and to be the best
• Three major characteristics of those with high
need for achievement
– Want to assume responsibility for solving problems
– Tend to take calculated risks and set moderate,
attainable goals
– Need continuing recognition and feedback so they will
know how well they are doing
Needs Hierarchy Theory
Maslow (1970)
• Human needs are arranged in a strict hierarchy of
importance
• Once we satisfy our lower-order needs, we can pay
attention to our higher-level needs
–
–
–
–
–
Physiological
Safety
Belonging and love
Esteem
Self-actualization
Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Herzberg (1966)
• Often referred to as the two-factor theory
• Explains work motivation and job satisfaction in
terms of job duties and features of the
workplace
• Meeting Motivator needs produces satisfaction
• Failure to meet Hygiene needs produces
dissatisfaction
• Job enrichment is an effort to expand jobs to
increase the opportunity to satisfy motivator
needs
Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Herzberg (1966)
• Motivator needs are internal to the work and include
responsibility, achievement, recognition, advancement,
career development, and growth
• Challenging work leads to satisfaction, but it’s absence
does not necessarily lead to job dissatisfaction
Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Herzberg (1966)
• Hygiene needs are external to the job tasks and
involves features of the work environment:
company policy, supervision, interpersonal
relations, working conditions and salary
• When hygiene needs are not met, the result is
dissatisfaction; when they are met, the result is
an absence of dissatisfaction
• Job enrichment is an effort to expand the scope
of the job to give employees a greater role in
planning, performing, and evaluating their work
Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Herzberg (1966)
• Job Enrichment
– Remove some management controls and make people
accountable and responsible for their work
– Create complete work units where possible
– Provide regular and continuous feedback
– Encourage employees to take on new tasks or become
experts in old ones
• The goals of job enrichment are to increase
personal growth, fulfill needs for achievement and
responsibility, and provide recognition
Job Characteristics Theory
Hackman & Oldham (1976)
• Links specific job characteristics with
psychological conditions that lead to greater
motivation, performance, and satisfaction for
employees who have a high growth need
• Core job characteristics:
–
–
–
–
–
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
• Motivation
• Performance
• Satisfaction
High growth
need
Job Characteristics Theory
Hackman & Oldham (1976)
• Elements of Job Design
– Form larger work units from smaller, specialized tasks
– Arrange tasks in meaningful work units to make the
worker responsible for an identifiable unit
– Give workers responsibility for direct contact with
clients and end users
– Give workers control over tasks
– Arrange for workers to regularly learn how well they
are performing on the job
Job Characteristics Theory
Hackman & Oldham (1976)
• Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS)
– A self-report inventory that measures three aspects of the Job
Characteristics theory:
• Employee’s perceptions of job characteristics
• Employee’s level of growth need
• Employee’s satisfaction
– Should also consider cognitive demand and production
responsibility
Process Theories of Motivation
• Valence-instrumentality-expectancy
theory (VIE)
• Equity theory
• Goal-setting theory
Expectancy Theory
Vroom (1964)
• Valence-instrumentality-expectancy theory
(VIE) states that people make choices based
on their expectations that certain rewards will
follow from certain behaviors
• Employees will perform at the level that gives
the greatest payoff or benefit
• The worth of the reward varies individually
• Effort = expectancy x instrumentality x
valence
Expectancy Theory
Vroom (1964)
• Expectancy
– Employees must decide whether they expect job
behaviors to have a high probability of leading to a
particular outcome
• Instrumentality
– Employees must determine whether that outcome will
be instrumental in leading to other outcomes
• Valence
– Employees must decide whether those outcomes have
sufficient psychological value to motivate them to
behave in a certain way
Equity Theory
Adams (1965)
• Work motivation is influenced by our
perceptions of fairness of treatment
• We calculate the ratio of our outcome to input
and compare it with what we believe are the
ratios of our co-workers
• Experience inequity if we get less than others
• In presence of inequity we are motivated to do
something to reestablish balance
Equity Theory
Adams (1965)
Three response patterns to inequity
• Benevolent
– Satisfied when they are under-rewarded compared with coworkers
• Equity sensitive
– Believe everyone should be fairly rewarded
• Entitled
– People believe that everything they receive is their just due
Goal-Setting Theory
Locke (1968)
• Level of motivation on the job is determined by
individual desire to achieve a particular goal
• Goal represents what we intend to do at given
time in the future
• Setting specific and difficult goals can motivate
our behavior
• Warning: Difficult goals may stimulate our
motivation to achieve at the expense of other
behaviors, such as helping our colleagues
Goal-Setting Theory
Locke (1968)
• Individual goal commitment
– the strength of our determination to reach our goal
• Goal commitment is influenced by
– External factors: authority, peer influence, and external
rewards
– Interactive factors: competition and the opportunity to
participate in setting goals
– Internal factors: self-administered rewards,
expectations of success, need for achievement, type-A
behavior, self-esteem, internal locus of control
Job Satisfaction
• Positive and negative feelings and attitudes
about our job
– Most frequently studied IV in I-O Psychology
• People who have positive attitudes toward their
work are likely to have positive feelings about
their personal and family life
• There is a positive and reciprocal relationship
between job and life satisfaction
• General life satisfaction may be the more
influential
Measures of Job Satisfaction
• Job Descriptive Index (JDI)
– Measures pay, promotion, supervision, nature of the
work, characteristics of co-workers
• Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ)
– Covers 20 job facets, including advancement,
independence, recognition, social status, and working
conditions
• Personal interviews
• Sentence completion tests
• Critical incidents technique
Job Satisfaction
• A single measure of job satisfaction does not
identify those areas of specific satisfaction of
dissatisfaction
• Need to examine what questions are asked and to
which population
• Satisfaction with specific job facets varied from
22% (promotion policy) to 58% (interest in work)
• Only 10 to 13 percent of workers say they are
dissatisfied with their jobs
• Satisfaction varies with industry and type of job
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Personal Characteristics and Job
Satisfaction
Age – positive relationship
Sex – no clear difference
Race – whites generally more satisfied than minorities
Cognitive ability – depends on education and challenge
Job experience – positive relationship
Use of skills – increase with use of more skills
Job congruence – positive relationship
Organizational justice – positive relationship
Personality – varies with different Big 5 factors
Job control – positive relationship
Occupational level – positive relationship
Losing Your Job
• Job loss is stressful….
• Those losing higher level jobs suffer more from
unemployment
• Personal sense of betrayal
• Decrease in organizational commitment among survivors
Losing Your Job
• Finding a new position helps counteract the negative
effects unless there is dissatisfaction with the new job
• It may help to take a time off to handle the grief before
starting a job search
• Individuals high in job involvement had increased stress
due to job uncertainty, and health problems
Job Satisfaction and On-the-Job Behavior
• There is a positive but weak relationship
between satisfaction and productivity
– Research indicates that productivity may increase job
satisfaction
• High job satisfaction is related to prosocial
behavior , that is, helpful behaviors directed at
customers, co-workers, and supervisors
• Counterproductive behavior is related to
dissatisfaction
Job Satisfaction and On-the-Job Behavior
• Job satisfaction is negatively related to
absenteeism and turnover
• There is less absenteeism and turnover in jobs
that require a high level of creativity, challenge,
complexity, and autonomy
• Turnover is not always harmful
– Functional turnover occurs when poor employees
quit their jobs
– Dysfunctional turnover occurs when good
employees quit their jobs
Perceived Pay Equity
• Perceived equity or fairness of pay may be more
important than the amount
• We tend to develop personal standards of comparison
based on the minimum salary we consider acceptable
– Reflects Equity theory
• Women and minorities generally earn significantly less
than white men
Merit Pay
• Merit pay systems pay higher performing workers
more than less productive workers
• Widespread disagreement among managers about
the behaviors that should be important in making
decisions about pay
• Supervisors who themselves receive ample pay
raises tend to recommend higher raises for
subordinates
– However, supervisors low in self-esteem may also provide
high raises for fear of retribution
• Merit pay seems to work better for those lower in
positive affect
Wage-Incentive Systems
• The primary pay system for production workers
– The more units produced, the higher the wage
• Seldom works in practice
– Many work groups establish their own production norms,
regardless of the wage-incentive
– Most workers prefer a straight hourly system
Job Involvement
• Job involvement is the intensity of a person’s
psychological identification with the job
• The higher the identification, the greater is one’s
satisfaction
• Job involvement is related to personal
characteristics, job characteristics and social
factors
• Older workers and employees who work in
teams are more involved
• Those workers with growth needs are more
involved with enriched jobs
Organizational Commitment
• Organizational commitment (OC) is the
degree of psychological identification with or
attachment to the company
• Components of OC:
– Acceptance of organization’s values and goals
– Willingness to exert effort for the organization
– Strong desire to remain affiliated with the organization
• Longer tenured employees have stronger
correlation between OC and job performance
Organizational Commitment
• Organizational factors related to commitment
include job enrichment, autonomy, opportunity to
use skills, and positive attitudes toward the work
group
• There is reciprocity of perceived commitment
from the organization; also with organizational
equity and justice
• The greater the diversity of the organization, the
less the commitment among the majority white
employees (same for gender)
Types of Organizational Commitment
• Affective or attitudinal
– The employee identifies with the organization,
accepts its values, and complies with its demands
– Correlates with perceived managerial potential
• Continuance or behavioral
– Employee is bound by extrinsic factors (“golden
handcuffs”)
• Normative
– Involves a sense of obligation to the employer
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors
• OCBs involve putting forth extra effort, doing more
than the minimum requirements for a job
• Include
–
–
–
–
–
–
Taking additional assignments
Voluntarily assisting others
Keeping up with professional development
Following company rules when not being watched
Promoting and protecting the organization
Keeping a positive attitude and tolerating
inconveniences
• Those who display OCBs tend to be high in
conscientiousness, extraversion, optimism and
altruism
Key Terms
• Achievement
motivation
• Equity theory
• Goal-setting theory
• Job-characteristics
theory
• Job congruence
• Job enrichment
• Job satisfaction
• Merit pay
• Motivator-hygiene
theory
• Needs hierarchy theory
• Organizational
citizenship behaviors
• Prosocial behavior
• ValenceInstrumentalityExpectancy theory
• Wage-incentive system