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From Oligarchy to Neoliberalism: The role of Violence in the Construction of Peru’s Constitutional Order Max Cameron Poli 332 March 1, 2016 Structural Conditions • Spanish colonial domination: Peru was an important Vice Royalty in the colonial period: It had the mines and labor to support a massive aristocracy. • Economic dependency on major capitalist powers: Mancera divides Peruvian history before/after 1500 as “autonomy” and “dependency”. Economic base extractivist. Large landholdings (latifundios) and enclave economy • Ethnic heterogeneity very high: Peru has a large indigenous population. Long tradition of “indigenismo”: “which saw in the regeneration of exploited Indians a bright future for Peru” (Mayer 1991, p. 475). Political Processes • Long period of anarchy following independence • Oligarchy consolidated in late 19th century • Pressures for change in 1920s and 1930s • Oligarchic state collapses in 1970s under military rule • Rise of the Shining Path, autogolpe 1992 • Neoliberalism in 1980s • No left turn Oligarchic Domination The “clique of Creoles and foreigners who inhabit the strip of land between the Pacific Ocean and the Andes do not form the real Peru; the nation is made up by the Indian masses spread across the Eastern slopes of the mountains. The Indian has dragged along at the bottom level of civilization for three hundred years, as a hybrid with the vices of the barbarian without the virtues if the European. Teach him only to read and write, and you will see whether or not in a quarter of a century he will rise to the dignity of a man.” -- Manuel Gonzales Prada (18441918) Populism Republican, democratic ideas were inappropriate in a heterogeneous society divided along racial and class lines. Indians could not read or write because there was no policy of educating them for citizenship, and, as a result, Peru had democracy “in name only.” Constitutional government was a “façade that masked cruel and despotic rule.” -- Victor Raul Haya de la Torre Socialism Peru a “country in which Indians and foreign conquerors live side by side but do not mingle with or even understand one another. The republic feels and declares its loyalty to the viceroyalty and, like the viceroyalty, it belongs more to the colonizers than to the rulers. The feelings and interests of four-fifths of the population play almost no role in the formation of the national identity and institutions.” -- Jose Carlos Mariategui Breakdown of Oligarchic Domination (1950s-1960s) • • • • • • Oligarchy persisted until 1960s “Structural dualism” Haciendas and peasant communities Gamonales, gamonalismo Peasant mobilization in 1950-60s Guerrilla movement Military Regime, 1968-80 • • • • • • A corporatist, nationalist regime Land reform, peasant co-ops Industrial communities Unionization Anti-imperialism Unintended consequences: – Social mobilization – Rise of a “new left” Transition to Democracy/ Democracy Under Stress • Constitution of 1979 – Progressive features • Shining Path Maoists initiate “Prolonged Peoples’ War” José Matos Mar’s Desborde Popular • Argued that the “Creole republic” (i.e. the state institutions of “Official Peru”), had lost the ability to exclude and marginalize the Andean majority (the “Marginal Peru”). • Legislative and judicial institutions—not to mention parties, large firms, unions, the church, the armed forces, and the bureaucracy—formed part of “Official Peru,” and they were monopolized by literate Creoles. • “Marginal Peru” was made up of smaller scale neighborhood associations, peasant self-defense groups, or “rondas,” the informal and subsistence economies, and indigenous cultural organizations generally composed of bilingual, often illiterate, sometimes unilingual Quechua or Aymara speakers. Sendero Luminoso • Emerged from the breakdown of oligarchic domination – Story of Lino Quintanilla • Armed propaganda: “terrifying act that breaks the rules of civil society.” -- D.S. Palmer. “el pueblo clama y nosotros respondemos a ese clamor, a esa exigencia, sentimos lo que sienten y queremos lo que quieren, quieren que sus manos hablen el lenguaje preciso y contundente de los hechos armados.” -- Guzman The Caudillo Messiah • Use of Biblical and messianic language: evoke world of violence as a form of purification. • Example of militarization of language: “Contra la fascistizacion del gobierno de Apra” – Bandera Roja graffiti in Comas. • Cult of the leader: absolute authority of “Dr.” • Disdain for dialogue: preference for violence. • “Marxism-Leninism-Maoism-Guzman thought” Violence and Hyperinflation Rise of Fujimori • Elected 1990 as “outsider” • Autogolpe in 1992 – Close congress – Suspend constitution – Purge courts – Rule by degree – Call for referendum • Result:1993 constitution with wider executive powers, more neoliberal features State Response – The role of intelligence (Montesinos & Colina group) – Selective executions and disappearances – Military courts – The Ronda Campesina – Repentance law – Will to win The Capture! Collapse of a Hybrid System Next Class • Neoliberal governance in Peru • Why Peru missed Latin America’s left turns