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Sex Hormones Endocrine glands Secrete hormones internally (Bloodstream) Hormone ○ Complex chemical ○ Specific actions for specific organs Exocrine glands Secrete externally (aweat glands) Sex Hormones Hypothalamus Controls pituitary Dual function ○ As a gland Reacts to hormonal levels in the bloodstream ○ As a part of the CNS Reacts to higher brain functions (perceptions, thoughts, feelings, moods) Testosterone Bound and free Men 95% bound, not active for sexual desire 5% free Women 97-99% bound 1-3% free Testosterone Amount needed varies in individuals of both sexes. Women more sensitive. More testosterone does not produce more sexual desire Testosterone Additional testosterone has adverse effects Men Women Hair loss Facial and body hair Salt and fluid retention Muscle mass Possible testicular cancer Smaller breasts Acne Larger clitoris Digestive problems Voice deeper Irritability and aggression Gestational Development of Genitals First seven weeks Undifferentiated 2 gonads 2 sets of ducts (Mullerian and Wolffian) 7th week Y chromosome turns gonad into testicle Gestational Development of Genitals 10th-11th week Absence of Y chromosome = ovaries develop. Both types of gonads start producing their respective hormones. Female: Absence of testosterone causes degeneration of Wolffian ducts Mullerian ducts form internal sex organs Gestational Development of Genitals Male Testes produce anti-Mullerian hormone, so they disappear Wolffian ducts become internal sex organs Gestational Development of Genitals Tubercle, folds and swelling develop into external genitals for each sex The default model is female In the absence of any step to go to the male model, the child will be female MENSTRUATION Onset Menarche ○ Mean age: 12.6 1900 Mean age 16 Diet changes increases in body fat 20-36 days is normal range Lasts until Age 45-55 MENSTRUATION MENSTRUATION MENSTRUATION MENSTRUATION MENSTRUATION Changes in cervical mucus during cycle: Regular functions of mucus: ○ Lubrication ○ Bacteriostatic ○ pH regulation It is cloudy, whitish, thick MENSTRUATION Ovulatory cervical mucus: Days 12-16 of cycle Transparent Very stretchy, like raw egg white Functions: ○ To help sperm ○ Regulating pH (normal to alkaline) ○ Sugars ○ Conveyor MENSTRUATION Toxic Shock Syndrome Presence of staphilococcus aureus (ubiquitous) Particularly when using tampons Can be fatal Dioxin Bleaching chemicals Used in “sanitary” products Powerful carcinogen Can affect hormones Immunosuppressant Endometriosis MENSTRUATION Anovulatory cycles Adolescents and menopause (climacteric) Amenorrhea The absence of a menstrual period in a woman of reproductive age After menopause MENSTRUATION Dysmenorrhea Painful menstruation Prostaglandins ○ Hormone-like ○ Secreted by uterus ○ Cause uterine contractions Endometriosis Endometrium grows outside uterus Dysmenorrhea is a symptom MENSTRUATION PMS Negative expectations Unhealthy diet No exercise Smoking Endometriosis Anxiety Physical symptoms Pregnancy Prenatal period Nine months Three trimesters Perinatal period From beginning of labour to 72 hrs. postpartum Conception Requires the following Adequate sperm count Changes in vaginal mucus Open Fallopian tubes Normal ovulation Normal hormonal levels Infertility Most common reason for infertility: STDs in both men and women Lead to infertility Blocked Fallopian tubes or vas deferens Pregnancy Stages of uterine development Zygote: ○ 1-14 days Embryo: ○ 3-8 weeks Fetus: ○ 9-40 weeks Reproductive Technologies Artificial Insemination Introducing sperm into woman’s vagina or uterus by artificial means in vitro fertilization (IVF) Test tube or Petri dish used to mix gametes Once dividing, surgically implanted into woman’s uterus Prenatal Diagnosis Tests for chromosomal abnormalities and fetal infections Amniocentesis 11-14 weeks Chorionic villus sampling (CVS) 6-8 weeks Physical and Psychological Changes During Pregnancy 1st trimester: Enlarged, tender breasts Amenorrhea Nausea (⅓ severe,⅓ mild, ⅓ none) Sleepiness (⅔) Aversion to some foods, odors Increased urinary frequency (hormonal) Mixed emotions, ambivalence, anxiety and exhilaration Physical and Psychological Changes During Pregnancy 2nd trimester: Quickening ○ Initial motion of the fetus in the uterus ○ As it is perceived by the pregnant woman Increased girth and well-being Mostly positive outlook, energy Preparatory behaviors, prenatal classes Some who rejected pregnancy accept it Physical and Psychological Changes During Pregnancy 3rd trimester: Large abdomen, awkward ○ Difficulty turning over in bed Lost sleep due to ○ Frequent urination (weight of uterus on bladder) ○ Activity of fetus Anxiety increases (delivery, birth defects) Differences between fit and unfit women Physical and Psychological Changes During Pregnancy Possible pregnancy complications Edema Hypertension Gestational diabetes ○ Proteinuria Threatened early labor Physical and Psychological Changes During Pregnancy Male Economic worries Feeling left out Couvade ○ Experiences some of the same symptoms and behavior as the mother near the time of labor ○ Actual changes in hormonal levels Before birth, more prolactin and cortisol After birth, less testosterone Teratogens Teratogens Smoking CO ○ 200 times more affinity to Hgb than oxygen Oxygen supply compromised (5% less) Decreases sperm motility ○ Lower fertility Less progesterone ○ Miscarriages Placental problems Higher morbidity and mortality ○ From 9/1000 to 33/1000 Higher rates of cleft palate and hare lip Teratogens Alcohol FASD (fetal alcohol spectrum disorder) ○ Brain abnormalities learning difficulties ADDH Mental retardation, etc. ○ Possible damage to eyes, ears, immune system, internal organs, joints, limbs ○ Low birth weight ○ Increased prematurity, miscarriage and stillbirth risk Teratogens Alcohol FASD (fetal alcohol spectrum disorder) ○ Growth retardation ○ Facial and cranial malformations ○ Dose and timing related ○ No safe dose ○ There is no cure for FASD ○ Leading cause of preventable mental retardation Teratogens Maternal Diseases Rubella Toxoplasmosis CMV Radiation High temperature (hot bath) Environmental Pollution Phthalates Drugs Prescription ○ Thalidomide Recreational Interactions Teratogens Maternal stress Acute or chronic (worse) Adrenaline, corticosteroids ○ Compromise oxygen supply for infant After birth Digestive problems Low birth weight Irritability Teratogens Maternal age No more obstetrical complications (if healthy) Increased Down’s syndrome Other effects of these variables Affect maternal-infant interaction Abuse Neglect Rejection Maternal Nutrition First trimester Usually not an issue Second trimester Quality Third trimester Quality and quantity Folic acid Prevents neural tube defects (spina bifida) Maternal Nutrition Infant Optimal Weight 7½ - 8 lbs. (European stock) Low Birth Weight 5½ lbs. or 2,500 g Montreal Diet Dispensary 500 extra daily calories: ○ 1 qt. milk ○ 1 egg ○ 1 orange Birth LABOUR Fetal hormone signals mom’s hypothalamus Produced when fetal lungs ready to breathe Hypothalamus stimulates pituitary Pituitary secretes oxytocin ○ Oxytocin makes uterus contract Labour begins Labour First stage: Early first stage ○ Longest (hours or days) ○ Mild contractions, relatively short ○ Relatively large intervals Late first stage ○ Shorter than early stage ○ Contractions longer and at much shorter intervals Transition ○ Shortest ○ Most intense ○ Random pattern of contractions. All along, cervix dilating and effacing (thinning) Labour Second stage: Cervix fully dilated (10 cm) Baby moves down birth canal Crowning Duration ○ Primiparas About 1 hr. ○ Multiparas Faster Head first, rotation Labour Third stage: After 10-15 min interval ○ Expulsion of placenta During interval between stages 2 and 3: Lungs start to work gradually Cord delivers last of maternal blood to infant Heart valves close Cord must not be cut until white and not pulsing Labour POSITIONS FOR LABOUR Lithotomy Position Weight of uterus and its content on abdominal aorta ○ Can cause reduced blood flow to fetus ○ Slows down labour ○ Importance of gravity’s help Labour Better Positions Sitting up reclined Lying on her side On hands and knees Unmedicated, undisturbed birth best 90-95% births do not need intervention. RISKS OF INDUCING LABOUR Induction of labour with pitocin Contractions too hard Lead to more analgesics and anesthetics Uterine rupture and to brain damage (pressure on the skull) If lungs not ready, leads to respiratory distress due to lack of surfactin POSSIBLE COMPLICATIONS (5-10%) Placenta previa abruptio placenta Separation of the normally located placenta Transverse or breech presentation Prolapsed cord Cord pinched or wrapped around neck POSSIBLE COMPLICATIONS All carry risk of hypoxia or anoxia Hypoxia Reduced oxygen Anoxia NO oxygen Consequences Brain damage Detectable or subclinical Common interventions C-section Major abdominal surgery Possible lack of adrenaline/noradrenaline in baby N. American C-sec rates too high Pain medication (analgesics and anesthetics) Can slow down labour and decrease oxygen delivery to baby EFFECTS OF ANESTHETICS AND ANALGESICS Slow down labour (leading to pitocin use) Sluggish baby Mother zonked, weak Can interfere with bonding Can interfere with lactation Can interfere with rooming-in HUMAN LACTATION Mammals perfected milk for their young over millions of years of evolution Each species has the perfect milk for its own young, for optimal adaptation to environmental demands Chemical composition very varied Production of both prolactin and oxytocin respond to demand More sucking = more hormonal output. Advantages for infant Nutritional Smooth adaptation period from intra to extra-uterine life ○ (Shortened gestation – 9 months instead of 12 as other primates) Species-specific ○ Each species has different developmental needs ○ Right amounts of the right nutrients Advantages for infant Nutritional (Cont’d): Non-allergenic 100% digestible, no waste ○ Bioavailability of nutrients Lower renal solute unlikely to overfeed due to changing composition through a feed ○ Lower risk of later obesity Brain development Immunological advantages Fresh antibodies in each drop Infant has immature immune system Mammary gland makes antibodies in situ when a new pathogen appears in the environment Lactobacillus bifidus prevents gut colonization by harmful bacteria Lower morbidity and mortality Benefits for lactating mother Uterus back to pre-pregnant state due to oxytocin-induced contractions Contraception** Breast cancer protection Skeletal calcium deposits (lower osteoporosis risk) Weight loss Stress control (hormonal) Bonding