Download Wars of Religion: 16th Century Europe after Luther

Wars of Religion:
th
16 Century Europe after
Luther
Basic Developments in Europe: 1500’s
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France—time of conflicts:
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Britain—time of development:
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Will Spain hang on to its role as dominant world power?
What is the role of Spain in religious conflicts?
HRE
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Will Britain continue in the path of Protestantism or return to
Catholicism
Will Britain “get respect” as a major iimperial power in the face of
Spanish competition
Spain
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Who will rule—regional aristocracies, oligarchic noble families, royal
house, king?
Will French domains be Catholic, allow Protestantism, what kind of
Protestantism?
Will the HRE be torn apart by foreign monarchs as the major war
between Protestants and Catholics rages in German speaking lands
Russia
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Russia struggles for nationhood against powerful neighbors
Who will rule—fights between nobles and ruler
France
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Beginning of Absolutism: monarch is supreme; can
exercise full and complete power over nation and
subjects without any check of law
Huguenots: people who do not accept the Catholic
church—general term for French protestants, whether
Calvinist or one of the other groups
Background: Charles VII (1422-61)
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Presided over French recovery from 100 Years’ War
Expelled English definitively from France
1st professional royal army recruited, paid,
commanded by the state, not feudal lords
Pragmatic Sanction
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declared the supremacy of council decisions over pope
suppressed payment of annates or “first fruits” (Catholic
church’s/pope’s right to half of the first year’s salary of any
appointed church official) The pope also got 1/10 of the
official’s salary after that first year.
Charles VIII (ruled 1483-98)
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Valois family/son of Louis XI; 13 at
succession; sister regent, married to a
Bourbon
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Regarded as pleasant and foolish, with bad
health
At 21 married heiress (resulting in 4 children,
who all died young) and declared self
independent
French/Italian Wars
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Claim to Naples through maternal grandma
Sforza convinces him to invade N Italy, help
him in Milan vs his son
Triumphal through N Italy
Alliance to oppose him: Venice, papal states,
Austria, and ironically, Milan
Defeated at Fornovo, lost most of his army,
and went home to rebuild
Ran into the door frame, died, no heirs
Consequences: Italian Renaissance to
France
Louis XII (ruled 1498-1515)
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Actually a cousin of Charles VIII, who died
without an heir, he married Charles’s wife to
cement relationship with her father (Brittany)
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French-Italian Wars, continued
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He married three wives trying to beget an heir: had
two daughters by first wife
Claimed Milan, so invaded Italy several time
Successfully took Milan from Sforza in 1499 and kept
it until 1511
Pope Julius lead armies against his forces with
support of The Holy League (note the name—
because it was lead by the pope) which included
Venice and England, Scotland, Austria, etc who came
in and out throughout the wars.
The French were eventually driven from Milan by the
Swiss in 1513.
French-Italian Wars, continued again
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He pursued the French claim to Naples, fighting
against Spain. Finally, the two countries partitioned
the kingdom; of course, the peace didn’t last long.
Spain and France again fought for Naples; the
consequence: French lost by 1504.
Francis I (ruled 1515-1547)
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Father = first cousin to Louis XII;
married to his daughter (but Salic
Law = women couldn’t inherit the
throne)
True Renaissance King
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Fontanbleau + employed Cellini and
others = start of what’s in Louvre now
DaVinci d. in his arms
Educated, wrote poetry
Began French national library: he
signed law that decreed one copy
every book published in France to be
sent to national library
Chateau of Fontanbleu
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Habsburg-Valois Wars 1-2
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To check Habsburg power
Italy, wo central government, vulnerable; ruled Milan
until 1513
Allied with Henry VIII vs Charles V
Battle of Pavia; Francis lead the armies himself
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Treaty of Madrid
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Defeated by the armies of Charles V
Captured; to go home he had to sign…
renounced his claims in Italy
surrendered Burgundy to Charles
Turned over Flanders and Artois..
Refused to abide by the treaty, which he’d signed
under duress, so attacked again
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League of Cognac (1526) with Pope Clement VII,
Henry VIII, Venice, and Florence
Defeated again: ended with Treaty of Cambrai
Left Burgundy to France, but otherwise duplicated
the Treaty of Madrid
The Battle of Pavia
Hapsburg Valois Wars 3-4
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Francis invaded the 3rd time when Francis Sforza, of
Milan died
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Claimed succession there, invaded Italy
In turn, Charles invaded Provence, again defeated Francis
Fourth time attacked the emperor, who allied himself
(1543) with Henry VIII.
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Supported by Ottoman Turk, Sultan Sulayman I (Suleiman),
invaded Italy (again!)
Charles and Henry VIII invade France
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Treaty of Crépy: Francis relinquishes claims to Naples,
Flanders, and Artois. Peace with England (1546) confirmed
the loss of Boulogne.
Francis I and the Reformation
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By 1519, there were people in Paris who were sympathetic to ideas of
Luther and Zwingli.
 However, Luther condemned as a heretic, Parlement of Paris ordered
Luther’s books burned, all versions of the Bible except the Latin Vulgate
unacceptable.
At first, Francis I's attitude toward the Reformed ideas fluctuated
between sympathy and persecution.
 To gain the support of Parlement and the Sorbonne when Charles held
Francis prisoner, Louise of Savoy, the king's mother and regent, ok’d
suppression of heretical books and a commission to find and punish
heretics.
 On the king's return, at first favored reform, and even appointed Lefvre as
tutor to his son.
 In 1528, when a statue of the Virgin was mutilated, he ordered
persecutions.
 In 1532, to ally with the German Protestants and with England, where
Henry VIII was antipapal, he changed again, favored reform once more,
and in the royal palace of the Louvre listened to evangelical sermons.
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1534 "Affair of the Placards."
 Placards, attacking the Mass, posted in Paris and elsewhere,
one even on the door of the king's bedchamber.
 Response = renewed persecution; many heretics were burned
and others fled; death declared penalty for heretics. (Calvin left
Paris at this time because he was in danger)
Later on, Francis became a consistent persecutor of heretics, by
then 1/10 of population.
 Edict of Fontainebleau: persecution of “heretics,” mostly middle,
lower classes.
 The Sorbonne issued list of banned books; printing and selling of
Protestant works forbidden in France.
 In 1545 terrible destruction of the Waldensians in Provence, with
twenty-two villages destroyed, 3-4000 massacred, 700 sent to the
galleys for heresy (Protestantism).
 In 1546, the "Fourteen of Meaux," burned at Paris..
Concordat of Bologna
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Between Francis I and Pope Leo X
Terms:
 Pope got:
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Francis got:
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All the income of the Catholic church in France
Papal veto of any leader the King of France chose
that was deemed truly unqualified
Right to annates (which often lead to shuffling of prelates among
dioceses
Affirmation that the Pope not subject to any council
Right to tithe churchmen;
Restriction of their right to appeal to Rome
Right to appoint to benefices (especially archbishops, bishops,
abbots), enabling the Crown to decide who was to lead the Church in
France.
Consequences: No easy reformation agreement in France
because kings had no reason to support one. Sets up religious
wars between Protestants and Catholics there
Henry II (r 1547-59)
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His reign was marked by open conflict between
Catholics and Protestants in France: during the
reigns of his three sons, kings after his death, 9
wars religious wars devastated France
Habsburg-Valois Wars, continued
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War in Italy, with some success, until Charles V
abdicated, when his son, Philip, and brother,
Ferdinand, split his empire
War continued in Flanders, with mixed success
and French sacking of Spanish cities there
Peace of Cateau-Cambresis, a treaty forced on
Henry, made him renounce all claims to Italy,
allowed him to retain some Flemish areas.
Part of the settlement: his daughter married Philip
He arranged for his son to marry the young Mary,
Queen of Scotland; he brought her into his court to
be raised there, hoping to use her in alliances
against the Habsburgs.
Persecution of Huguenots:
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burned them alive or cut out their tongues for speaking their
Protestant beliefs.
Even those suspected of being Huguenots could be
imprisoned for life.
Wife: Catherine de Medici
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Catherine de Medici, daughter in
last Florentine Medici dynasty
(Lorenzo II)
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Overshadowed by Diane de
Poitiers, longtime confidante and
counsellor, as well as mistress, to
Henry
Important because she was mother
and regent to three kings
Her uncle, Pope Clement VII,
refused Henry VIII’s request for
annulment; he arranged her
marriage because he wanted an
alliance with Francis against
Charles V
Longtime Confidante, Counselor, Mistress
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Diane de Poitiers
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Early life:
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In charge of Henry’s education as courtier once returned from
Spain, (three years as hostage in place of his father
A sharp intellect,
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So politically astute she wrote many of Henry II’s official letters,
signing them: HenriDiane.
"brains behind the throne".
confidence, maturity, loyalty to Henri II = most dependable ally in
the court.
Henry II’s total adoration for Diane -- jealousy in Queen
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married a relative of Francis I, had two girls
widowed, controlled her husband’s lands, ruling well;
canny at both politics and finances.
Henri entrusted Diane with the Crown Jewels of France,
had a luxurious chateau built for her, and gave her another palace
that Catherine had wanted for herself.
As long as Henry lived, the Queen was powerless to change
Diane’s power.
In 1559, Henry II critically wounded in a jousting tournament:
Queen Catherine de' Medici took control, restricting access
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Story: the king called out repeatedly for Diane, but she was never
summoned or admitted; on his death, not invited to the funeral.
Immediately, Catherine banished Diane from the palace
Catherine wanted: Diane lived out her life in her own palace.
Henry II’s Death
Jousting to celebrate his daughter’s marriage to Philip II, a lance
penetrated through helmet to right eye, skull: died 11 days later
The Problem with a Regency Government
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When a strong king isn’t in power, aristocracy and
nobility takes advantage to advance in power and
authority
Three families and their supporters fought over
power in France
Catherine de Medici’s job:
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play the families against each other, without seeming to
favor any, to keep a balance of power among them and
keep them from taking power or the throne
reserve real power for the monarchy, in trust for her son,
the king, who was still too young to govern and make his
own alliances
The Players for Power
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Bourbon family
Montmorency Chatillon family
De Guise family
Added together with weak young kings and a
strong willed and religious queen, the recipe
adds up to disaster and death,
Bourbon Family
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Conde
Originally from a family in France whose heiress daughter
married a son of Louis IX
Since they descended from a king, the family was
prominent and had legitimate claims to the throne when the
king died without heir.
During the wars of religion, several branches of the family
played important parts:
 Louis I de Bourbon, prince of Conde and general in the
French army against the Spanish, was a converted
Huguenot, and lead Protestant armies, then was captured
in 1562. He negotiated peace with the Catholics (Peace of
Amboise), which didn’t last, and was killed in battle.
 At the beginning of the 16th C, a Bourbon was married to
the Queen of Navarre, a small mountain kingdom sitting on
the border of Spain in southwestern France; the queen
followed Calvinism, and made Navarre Calvinist.
 In 1572, their son Henry became king of Navarre and
leader of the Protestant forces in Western Europe
Montmorency-Chatillon families
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Prominent rulers of central France
Though Catholic, these supported the Protestants
because of their political rivalry with the Guises,
alliances with the Bourbons
Major player: Gaspard de Coligny, a friend of a major
Catholic leader (de Guise), he was converted to
Protestantism, then used his position as admiral to try
to protect them (established a colony in Brazil, but
the Portuguese expelled them)
Called for religious toleration and reform at death of
Henry II, but opposed by his former Catholic friend
(Guise)
Lead Protestant armies well, he negotiated peace,
which didn’t last;
He married a Countess and returned to court and got
the favor of the king, which worried the (very
Catholic) queen mother and regent.
The de Guise family
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From Lorraine (dukes of Lorraine), created Duke de Guise
by Francis I
His daughter married James V of Scotland: Mary, Queen
of Scots, was their daughter
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When she came to France as bride of Francis II, the family gained
more prestige
Through her charm and “love” of the not-quite-all there, King
Francis II, Mary wielded more and more influence through him
Her uncles, who had high positions in the French government (one
was also a cardinal), gained great power in France
They lead the Catholic League, organized opponents of
the Huguenots in France
Francis II
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Married to Mary, Queen of Scots, at 4
(She was crowned queen at 9 months.)
They married when he was 14, giving
the king of France claim to the thrones
of Scotland, and later, England.
At 6 Mary came to live in France: she
was poised and fluent; he stuttered and
very short
When Francis was 15, his father died,
and he was crowned king. Though
Catherine was regent, Mary’s uncles,
the Guises, held the real power.
When Francis was 16, an ear infection
turned into an abscess, and he died.
Charles IX (r 1560-74)
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Became king at age 10 when
Francis, his older brother, died;
his mother, again, was regent.
Married to a princess of Austria
with whom he had two
daughters; one illegitimate son
from his middle class mistress
(whose legitimate daughter
became mistress to Henry IV),
but no male heirs!
Involved in St. Bartholomew’s
Day Massacre
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
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Causes:
 Peace of St. Germaine en Laye 1570: ended 3rd war of religion in
France
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Marriage of Henry of Navarre and Marguerite 18 Aug 1572
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Leader, Conde, killed; Henry (Bourbon) of Navarre became leader of the
Huguenots
Henry and King Charles sign treaty: Catherine and Charles want peace
because the war costs too much money and the conflict divides the court
Treaty allows Protestants to keep walled cities in the South, hold office in
France, and to seal the treaty, Catherine gives her daughter Marguerite
(Cath) as wife for Henry of Navarre (Prot)
Consequence: Admiral de Coligny again accepted at court, becomes
friend with the king, worrying Catherine and arousing resentment of de
Guise
Opposed by Catholics, the pope, Philip II; Parlement of Paris decides to
boycott wedding
Common people aroused against Protestants and wedding by preaching of
super-Catholic Capuchin monks in Paris
Economic/Social conditions
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Resentment over luxurious preparations for the wedding
Harvests bad; luxury good prices so high, only very rich can afford them
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What started it:
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Failed assassination
attempt on Admiral de
Coligny 23 Aug
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Maurevent
Possible instigators?
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Duke Henry of Lorraine (de
Guise) leader of Catholic
League, to avenge the
murder of Francis de Guise
by Coligny 10 years before
Duke of Alba, Spanish
governor of the
Netherlands (under Philip
II) because Coligny was
planning to invade and take
Protestants cities in
Flanders; the summer
before Coligny had secretly
sent troops to back
Protestant revolts there
Catherine de Medici,
threatened by the influence
of Coligny over her son, the
king; however, she and her
son were trying to establish
peace between Protestants
and Catholics, so probably
not
What happened:
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Protestant leaders accompanied Henry of Navarre to Paris at the marriage of
Henry of Navarre to Marguerite (Margot), Catherine’s daughter
After much haranguing, Charles agreed to allow Swiss mercenaries, directed by
Henry de Guise, to massacre Protestants in Paris for wedding
 Originally, proposed to allow noble born Protestants to escape:
 Reportedly, Charles exclaimed, “Kill them all. None should be left to reproach
me!”
 First, de Guise killed Coligny in his sickbed, dragging body into streets
 Swiss guard dragged Protestant leaders out of the palace, to kill them in the
streets
 Marguerite hid Henry of Navarre so that he would not be killed; he escaped
Paris during the massacres, got back to his Protestant forces in the south.
Out of control, the populace went wild, killing anyone suspected of having
Protestant sympathies
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The massacre spread throughout the country: usually lower class peasants urged on by
religious fanatics, rose up and killed Protestant middle class, peasants, etc.
Estimates: 2,000 killed in Paris (gates locked so they couldn’t escape); probably around
10,000 killed in the countryside, but estimates range from 2,000 to 100,000
Henry III (ruled 1574-89)
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Ruled Lithuania until his brother Charles died
Edict of Beaulieu
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Assassination of Henry de Guise
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Minor concessions to Protestants
Catholic Henry de Guise formed the Catholic League (religious and
military party: supported by Catherine, the pope, Philip II of Spain)
Henry III accepted the League and made himself the head BUT
When Henry III’s younger brother died, next heir under Salic Law was
Henry of Navarre (head of the Protestants!) Henry III had no children:
probably gay; adopted very effeminate dress and ran around with
homosexuals
De Guise insisted on Henry III making a proclamation outlawing
Protestantism and disinheriting Henry of Navarre
Henry III had de Guise assassinated: he invited him and his Cardinal
brother, Louis, to await him in the palace, then had guards kill Henry
(Louis the next day); he imprisoned de Guise’s son so no Guise heir
could claim the throne.
War of Three Henries (Henry III, Henry de Guise (dead), Henry
of Navarre)
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Inflamed by the assassination, the Catholic League rose up against
Henry III, proclaiming Charles Bourbon (another imprisoned cardinal)
as Charles X
Henry III was forced to flee Paris and ally with Henry of Navarre
With both Henrys’ armies, they were besieging Paris when a crazed
Dominican monk, Jacques Clement, with false papers, pretended to
have messages for Henry III, got access, and stabbed him to death.
Henry IV (Bourbon)
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Called Henry the Great (Henri le
Grand), le bon roi Henri ("good
king Henry") or le Vert galant ("the
Green gallant").
Baptized Catholic, he converted to
Calvinism, his mother’s religion.
When Henry III died, he was next
in line to become king.
The Catholic League opposed
him, proclaiming a distant relative,
Henry IV: Winning the Monarchy
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Catholic League with support from outside, especially from Spain, was strong
enough to force Henry IV to stay to the south
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After the death of the old Cardinal (Charles de Bourbon), the League could not
agree on a new candidate. While some supported various Guise candidates, the
strongest candidate was probably Isabella, the daughter of Philip II, whose
mother Elisabeth had been the eldest daughter of Henry II
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Henry had to set about winning his kingdom by military conquest, aided by money and
troops bestowed by Elizabeth of England.
The League proclaimed Henry's Catholic uncle, the Cardinal de Bourbon King as
Charles X, but the Cardinal himself was Henry's prisoner. Henry was victorious in
battles against the League, but failed to take Paris.
The publicity about her candidacy and violation of the Salic Law hurt the League,
which thus became suspect as agents of the foreign Spanish;
Nevertheless Henry was unable to take control of Paris, Catholic, opposing a
Protestant
With the encouragement of the great love of his life, Gabrielle d’Estrees, on
Henry declared that Paris vaut bien une messe ("Paris is well worth a Mass")
and permanently renounced Protestantism
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Thus earning the resentment of his former ally Queen Elizabeth.
But it secured for him the allegiance of the vast majority of his subjects
He was crowned King of France in 1553 and proceeded to make peace with all of his
subjects
Accomplishments:
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Improved the lives of all
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“a chicken in the pot every Sunday” was one of his aims
Through Sully, his right hand man, promoted agriculture: he drained swamps for new
crop land, reformed taxes to take burdens from the peasants
Improved the economy
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Encouraged exploration and colonization
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Made peace with Catholics and Protestants and threatened or bought off noble opponents
with titles and land; no wars = prosperity
Encouraged education for all. Created College Royale (now a military school)
Saved forests from devastation, built new system of tree-lined highways.
Renewed Paris and undertook public works, such as Pont Neuf in Paris, new canals.
Financed expeditions of Champlain to Americas, which allowed France to claim territory
in Canada
1598: Pronounced Edict of Nantes
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Sustained Catholicism as the established religion of France:
Protestants gained no exemption from paying the tithe, observing Catholic holidays and
marriage restrictions
Protestant freedom of worship, but only in specified geographic areas, outside city walls.
Only Protestant and Catholic coexistence; the Edict did not include Jews or Muslims. In
fact, France expelled its Muslims in 1610.
Death of Henry IV
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1610, as prepared to move vs Habsburgs, King Henry IV was
assassinated in Paris by Francis Ravaillac, who stabbed the king to
death while he rode in his coach.
Succession
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Never had children with Marguerite of Valois, and eventually had the
marriage annulled so he could marry another
In 1600 he married Marie de’ Medici, daughter of an Austrian princess and
granddaughter of the Holy Roman Emperor. (She also brought with her a
sizeable dowry.)
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Not very bright, but very stubborn, she feuded with the King’s chief mistress,
Henriette d’Entragues
She never escaped the charge of having known of the king's assassination; her
best friend was Mme.d’Epernono, who could have, but did not ward off Ravaillac's
blow, and who was proved to have known the murderer personally for a long time.
She served as regent to their 9-year-old son, Louis XIII, until 1617.
His mistresses included Gabrielle d’Estrees and Henriette d’Entragues.
England: Golden Age
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Henry VIII progeny
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Katherine of Aragon --- Mary I
Ann Boleyn -- Elizabeth I
Jane Seymour – Edward VI
Edward VI (r 1547-53)
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Though king at the age of 10, he was really a figurehead.
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His Seymour uncles battled with and ultimately lost the
Protectorship to the ambitious John Dudley, duke of
Northumberland.
Edward demonstrated impressive piety and intelligence.
Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, moved the
English church, with Edward’s acquiescence, toward
Protestantism
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Concerned about the need for a statement of belief for the
English church, Cranmer compiled and wrote 42 Articles, a
summary of Anglican doctrine that lead the Church of England
in a more Protestant direction.
He was also responsible for the Book of Common Prayer,
which broke from Catholic doctrine
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It toned down the idea of transubstantiation in the Eucharist
It removed prayers for the dead, and other ceremonies, including the
admixture of water with the wine at Communion, the exorcism.
Cranmer also encouraged the destruction of images, in imitation of
the followers of Calvin and Zwingli.
Edward died an agonizing death at 15, possibly from TB &
measles (Dudley kept him alive with arsenic).
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Northumberland (Dudley) persuaded him to leave the throne to
his Protestant cousin, Lady Jane Grey, declaring both Mary and
Elizabeth “illegitimate” (against his dad’s declarations +he a
minor and not eligible to make such pronouncements)
This decision (because Mary was Catholic, and Elizabeth too
strong politically) began one of the most tragic tales of Tudor
England.
Lady Jane Gray
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Descended from sister of Henry VIII; fourth in line for
throne, after her mother.
Dudley persuaded her parents to marry her off to his
son, Guildford, thus insuring his continued influence
on the throne.
Jane didn’t like Guildford, but didn’t want a Catholic
monarch (Mary) either; she married, then when
Edward died, accepted the crown, but was only a
figurehead for Dudley. She reigned 9 days.
When Edward died, Dudley moved to capture
Elizabeth and Mary to silence opposition to Jane’s
monarchy, but Mary escaped and gathered support.
(She was popular; the people thought her mother
had been badly treated.)
Nobles, seeing the way things were going, deserted
Dudley. He tried to march with an army + Jane’s dad
as general, but Jane cried and her dad refused.
Then town after town declared Mary queen. Even
Jane’s dad pledged to support Mary. Mary is
declared queen; Jane and her followers are all
traitors.
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Eventually only Jane, her father in law and husband were left,
imprisoned in the tower. Though Mary did not want to execute her,
Mary’s advisors pointed out that Jane had been consecrated queen and
could be a rallying point for Protestants to depose Mary.
After the execution of Dudley and some of the nobles that supported
Jane, Jane, along with Dudley’s 4 sons, were tried and plead guilty to
treason. The four were sentenced to die by being drawn and quartered,
and were executed.
Jane’s parents joined the Catholic church and were accepted in court,
becoming some of Mary’s favorites. They were assured that though
Jane had been sentenced to death, Mary had no intention to execute
her.
However, when Mary announced plans to marry the Catholic Spanish
King Philip II, the whole country rebelled. Jane’s father tried to join the
rebellion: Jane’s fate was set. Mary’s advisors urged her to execute
Jane, because she was a rallying point for the rebels.
So Mary had Jane beheaded, believing the girl was innocent and
merely manipulated.
Mary Tudor (r 1553-58)



Supported as queen by Catholics
and by most British, who felt she
and her mother were badly treated
by Henry VIII
BUT she believed the support was
not only for her as queen, but for
her to return England to the fold of
Catholicism
She was urged to marry quickly and
provide a Catholic heir, since she
was already 37; she chose Philip of
Spain, her cousin’s son, since she
liked the thought of marrying him, a
widower of 26, and he was the
champion of Catholicism

Bad decision:




Consequences of the marriage




The leaders of England were appalled: she was likely to die heir-less, her husband
would inherit the kingdom; Britain would be one more part of the Spanish Empire
Conspiracies abounded against the marriage: Wyatt’s rebellion ended with Jane
Gray’s execution and defeat of the rebels outside London’s gates
Mary, feeling picked upon, imprisoned Elizabeth, as a possible focus for rebellions of
her Protestant subjects
Purely political for Philip; he lived with Mary for 14 months, then found an excuse to
leave England.
Mary, in love with Philip, thought herself pregnant, but it was a hysterical pregnancy or
tumor, instead. (Interestingly, Philip had Elizabeth released from the tower, providing
she lived quietly in a castle away from London, because he wanted her to look on him
favorably if Mary died.)
Philip persuaded Mary to join Spain in the Italian wars against France. However, the
pope sided with France. The Spanish forces were defeated. England lost Calais to
France, making Philip and Mary even more unpopular.
“Bloody Mary”



Mary persuaded Parliament to repeal the Protestant religious laws passed by Edward
and Henry before her. The agreement took several years, and major concessions:
thousands of acres of monastery lands confiscated under Henry were not returned to
the monasteries; new landowners created by this distribution remained influential.
Mary I put in Catholic officials at the top of the English Church, and had many of
Edward’s church officials, including Thomas Cranmer, executed. In all she had 283
Protestants burned at the stake, earning her nickname “Bloody” Mary
After another false pregnancy, Mary died at 42, probably of ovarian cancer.
Elizabeth I (r 1558-1603)
Acceptance Problems



Ascension confusion/dispute
 Legitimacy
Personal image (turned liabilities
to assets)
 Young (25), Female
 Out of power stream during
Mary Tudor's reign
 Virgin—used hints of marriage
as manipulation both
domestically and with foreign
Coronation


Ring on marriage finger “as to the
people of England”
Visits to the Lords
 "Good Queen Bess"
Scottish Problems
Independent since 1314, resentful of England

Mary Queen of Scots









Mother = sister of Henry VIII
John Knox’s religious movement
Husband, Francis II, French king,
dies, and she returns to Scotland
Not well liked in Scotland (Catholic,
seemed French, exiled Knox, others)
Married Darnley and had a son, and
then Darnley killed (syphilitic, drunk)
Mary married Bothwell, forced to
abdicate (refuge in England)
20 years in prison there: numerous
plots of Catholics vs Elizabeth
Casket letters: “Mary, Mary”;
execution 1587
James VI (Stuart) of Scotland
(her son raised by Presbyterians)
John Knox

Trained as a Catholic priest, he became converted to
Protestantism, objecting to the form of Communion, the religious
heirarchy



Escaped to France, captured and served as a galley slave, which hurt
his health permanently
Lived in Britain and Germany, preaching in Protestant faits
Scottish religious reformer, credited with bringing the
Reformation to Scotland


Calvinistic, not part of English church
Protestantism was adopted by Parliament as the Scottish national
religion.




Knox, assisted by five other ministers, formulated the confession of
faith for the Scottish church
The First Book of Discipline: priests were replaced by ministers,
proposal to replace bishops with superintendents implemented later
Basis for Presbyterian church
First Blast against the Monstrous Regiment of Women,





Written against Mary Tudor, queen of England
women were not fit to rule, "idolatresses" who set reason aside and
ruled by their emotions.
This view of female psychology made Knox offensive to Mary Queen
of Scots and to Elizabeth..
Wrote that it was legitimate for the people to overthrow and even
execute female rulers because of precedents in the Bible, (Jezebel,
for instance)
She had him tried with heresy and arrested, but he defended himself
and was acquitted.
Money Problems




Lords support
Elizabeth's visits
Stopped the wars
Promoted industry
and trade
Privateers


Sir Francis Drake
Don’t forget his
voyages of
exploration: claim to
N. American lands
French Problems

English war with France




In alliance with Spain
(instigated by Mary Tudor m
to Philip II)
Sided with Catholic League
against Henry IV
Complication: Mary, Queen
of Scots, once married to
French king; therefore,
England open to invasion
from France AND Scotland.
Elizabeth drew out, instead
secretly supported Henry IV
vs Catholic League (backed
by Philip II)
Spanish Problems

Rivalry with England


Philip II Flanders interference





Fought to keep the Low Countries
Catholic
England and Spain officially at war from 1585
after years of underhanded conflict, the war
lasting until the Queen's death. Philip died in
1598, but his son, Philip III, continued the war,
even though he did so half heartedly.
Privateers (“sea dogs”)


Intense because of religious
differences
Inroads into shipments of gold and
silver from New Spain (Americas)
Endorsed by the queen, who took a
share of their booty: income to the
throne more than legitimate taxes
(favorite: Drake; Raleigh sponsored,
used money for his colonies)
Battle with Spanish Armada (1588)
Attempts at Colonization:

Roanoke
Religious Problems


Protestant versus Catholic division
Reaction to undo all of Mary's acts



Parliament dissolved ties to Catholicism
39 Articles: Ch of England performances
Elizabeth’s policy:



external acquiescence to Ch of England (attend church or fines); no concern
with private beliefs UNLESS pushed;
“I desire to open a window to no man’s conscience”
Puritan zealousness
•Elizabeth’s compromises with
Catholics offended them.
•Changes in Book of Common
Prayer so Catholics could
worship in C of England
•Vestments of priests ornate
like Catholics (Puritans called it
“popery”; Elizabeth liked them
English Problems

Vision for the
country



Merchants
Seafarers
Promotion of the
Golden Age


Prosperity and leisure
Arts


Language
Drama
Spain/Germany: Decline of Habsburg Power

Charles V


Background: g.son Ferdinand and Isabella
and of HRE Maximilian
Becoming Emperor of HRE:




Italian Wars (Habsburg-Valois Wars)




Bribed with loans from Fuggers (over Francis
I, Henry VIII)
Greatest empire since Charlemagne (Spain,
Naples, Sicilly, Sardinia, Burgundy,
Netherlands, Austria, Germany, Hungary)
Aim: keep them and keep them Catholic
Defeated Charles VIII, Louis XII in Italy;
Francis I tries to take revenge, taken prisoner,
French forced to give up claims to Italy and
Burgundy; pope allies to fight Charles
Spanish defeat Fr/pope alliance; sacks Rome
and captures pope; pope forced to side with
Charles vs France and Turks;
Further fighting with France over Flanders;
Henry III fights in Italy; Spain defeats him;
Charles rules all Italy except Venice
Treaty of Cateau/Cambresis ends
Habsburg-Valois wars
Charles V Continued

Standing against the Turks





Champion of Catholicism in the face of
Reformation pressures



Suleiman the Magnificent, greatest sultan of the
Ottoman Empire
Ottomans advanced to capture most of Hungary
(HRE), killing 20,000 of its inhabitants
Suleiman tries to capture Vienna (siege of
Vienna); stopped by Charles’s armies
Counterattack: Charles captures Tunis, in N.
Africa
Presides at Diet of Wurms
Fought Schmalkaldic Wars: result Peace of
Augsburg (cuius regio)
Abdication


At 55, physically old: lower lip extended; jaw out
so far, couldn’t chew or speak clearly, most teeth
gone, had to be held up to walk; suffered from
ulcers, gout, asthma, indigestion, arthritis; retired
to monastery
Divided empire


Ferdinand I, brother to Charles, got HRE
Philip II (Charles’s son) got Spain, the Low
Countries (Flanders and Netherlands), and
Spanish America)
Philip II (r. 1556-98)

Empire’s economic troubles





Charles left 6 million ducats income;
74 million dollar deficit (wars); debt 8 x
annual income
Conquistadores: Pizarro said,
“Everything comes down to one thing:
money and more money.”
Income = 1/5 of all metals from
America
Spain—inflation from gold and silver
coming in from Americas
Champion vs Turks

Battle of Lepanto:



5 hour naval battle off W Greece
between Holy League (HRE, pope,
Venice, Genoa, others) and Ottoman
fleet
Commanded by don Juan of Austria,
Philip’s illegitimate brother
Holy League victory; ended Turkish
expansion in the Mediterranean
Philip II: Champion of Counter Reformation

Against England


Armada; 2nd attempt 9 years later, but Philip died
Netherlands



Cardinal Granville checked Protestants by reforming
Catholic abuses
17 Netherlands provinces joyeuse entrée with self
government and own laws and tax systems
Spanish took independence from the 17 Netherlands
provinces,



replaced them with Catholic control, laws, taxes;
missionaries and Inquisition to convert back Protestants
Persecution and punishment for those who didn’t comply
Netherlands Revolt

Consequences of Spanish repression:




Duke of Alba sent with 10,000 Spanish troops to restore order




Spanish atrocities under Alba spurred rebellion
Repression with execution of over 1,000 rebels
Alba established Council of Troubles


Rebellion against laws and governors
Protestants fled Low Countries for England and Germany
Iconoclasm—wave of violence against images in churches (Calvinistic)
known to the people as the Council of Blood) to judge those involved with the
rebellion and the iconoclasm.
Several changes of leadership; finally Duke of Parma came to negotiate
instead of fight
BUT Spanish Fury (“Sack of Antwerp”)




Spanish troops unpaid; Spain declaring bankruptcy
Siege outside Antwerp (now Belgium); Spanish commander died
Troops decide to desert, take their pay—sack Antwerp with much rapine and
death
Ended peaceful negotiation
Netherlands Rebellion Continued

William (Nassau) of Orange (who was
actually Catholic): champion of rebels)




Had been brought up before Alba’s Council;
refused to appear, so declared an outlaw,
stripped of lands and office
Lead the troops against Spanish: many
citied opened their gates to his forces
Spanish siege of Leiden won when Dutch cut
dikes: Wm established university there
The Pacification of Ghent signed in 1576,
was an alliance of the provinces of the
Netherlands to drive out the Spanish



The northern (Protestant) and southern
(Catholic) provinces of the Low Countries put
aside religious difference, united in revolt
against the Spanish
First major expression of the Netherlands'
national self-consciousness.
Called for the expulsion of Spanish troops
from the Low Countries, the restoration of
provincial and local prerogatives, and an end
to the persecution of Calvinists
Rest of the Story

The alliance breaks apart:



Treaty of Arras



Calvinists more radical, tried to forbid Catholicism in their areas of control.
William was opposed for personal and political reasons, wanting freedom of
religion, and the support of the less radical Protestants and Catholics
1579 several southern provinces, unhappy with William's radical following,
Agreed to accept Spanish regent, Duke of Parma
Final Peace: Union of Utrecht




Five northern provinces of the Low Countries confirmed their unity
William opposed the Union, hoping to unite all provinces. Nevertheless, later, he
formally gave his support.
The Union of Utrecht = de facto constitution for Holland, only formal connection
between the Dutch provinces until 1795.
Later accepted by Parma: Holland would be independent; what later became
Belgium would remain in Spanish control
Decline of Spain : from heights of power
in 1588 to 2nd rate nation in 1715

Social Traditions:



Agricultural crisis



Expulsion of moriscos—no one to work the land in South = wilderness
Replacement of cattle by sheep on Meseta
Gradual Transformation of the Americas



Continuation of inheritance laws—all children of nobility = nobility with titles; divide
estates; can’t work or participate in commerce
Best and brightest going into powerful church, not business, agriculture, nor
government
Mexico and Peru develop own industry while Spain busy on continent
Economy with mineral, agriculture, industrial wealth, competes with Spain
Defeat of the Armada



Loss of prestige
Loss of investment
Though Philip begins another, Spain bankrupted
Fall of the Habsburgs in Spain

Increasing Economic Weakness of Spain




Growth of English and Dutch Overseas Trade




Inflation from gold and silver depreciating currency while prices of goods
rose
Debt begun by Charles V with purchase of HRE title and with wars and
building programs continued with Philip II and continued to rise
Bankruptcy of government in face of rising expenses of Netherlands
wars
Spanish monopolies in the Americas weakened, broken illegally
Dutch and English colonies throughout the world competing with Spain,
no longer dominant
Trade fell 60% between 1610-1650
Weakened leadership: excessive inbreeding
of Habsburgs



Philip III: weaker than father, though carried on
Philip IV: weaker yet
Charles II: complete imbecile; Habsburg features heightened
The Thirty Years’ War (1618-1648)
General information:





Last, most destructive of all wars of religion
Catholic vs Protestant AND Calvinist vs
Lutheran
Sacrifice all for religion: belief + hatred; ironic
since all Christian
Involved all of W.Europe, including Denmark
and Sweden
Changed alliances of Europe and helped
shape the Europe of today
Causes:

Peace of Augsburg



Assured sovereignty of small HRE regions: own taxes,
own money, tolls and customs duties
Travel and trade harder and harder
Holy Roman Empire




Small principalities, etc afraid of growing power of
empire
Feared intimidation, take over, etc. by Charles or Philip
Sought help from other European powers against
emperor
Special fear: Catholic emperors would force Catholicism
on Protestant regions
Foreign Nations Involvement Because of:



Spain: Spanish Netherlands was on the
western border of the German states. (The
Netherlands had revolted against the Spanish
domination, gaining independence.)
France: the German states because were
weak neighbors, compared to the Habsburgs
realms which surrounded France.
Sweden and Denmark wanted control over
northern German states bordering the Baltic
Sea.
Leadup: Catholic
Maximilian of Bavaria









His first marriage was childless.
By his second wife, Maria Ann of Austria
(daughter of his sister + HRE Ferdinand II),
two sons, with the oldest, Ferdinand Maria,
succeeding him.
Weak in health, Maximilian had high
ambitions, tenacious and resourceful
Ablest prince of time, he tried to prevent Germany from being battleground of
Europe; rigidly Catholic, but not always subservient to church.
Refrained from interference in German politics until entrusted executing the
imperial ban against a Protestant stronghold. His troops occupied the city,
and he moved to restore Catholicism.
Protestant princes, alarmed at this action, formed the Protestant Union
Maximilian, in answer, helped establish the Catholic League.
Under his leadership organized army, but strictly defensive: he refused to
allow the League to become a tool of Habsburgs.
Dissensions among colleagues led the duke to resign, but trouble brought
about his return to the League about two years later, opposing Frederick IV of
the Palatinate and his Protestant allies.
Calvinism, Fredericks and the Palatinate


Palatinate: territory along Rhine (ruled by count
palatine) Hohenstaufen family: electors (Golden
Bull) of HRE
Frederick III, a staunch Calvinist, inherited the
Palatinate;




it became one of the major centers of Calvinism supporting
Calvinist rebellions in both the Netherlands and France;
It allied with England, Netherlands, Henry of Navarre in
religious wars
Frederick III's grandson, Frederick IV, and his
adviser, Christian of Anhalt, founded the Evangelical
Union of Protestant states in 1608.
In 1619 Elector Frederick V (the "Winter King") (the
son-in-law of King James I of England) accepted the
throne of Bohemia from the Bohemian estates.

In charge of Protestant forces (Evangelical Union of
Protestant states)
The Bohemian Period (1618-1625):
Revolt vs the Empire


Ferdinand II elected to become king of Bohemia and of
Hungary against Protestant wishes

educated to be staunchly Catholic by the Jesuits

Immediately revoked religious freedom from Bohemian Protestants.
“Defenestration of Prague”:




Angry Bohemians declared the Calvinist elector Palatine,
Frederick V their overlord.



F. sent two Catholic counsellors to rule at castle in Prague (Bohemian capital):
Mock trial: Calvinists through them out of window (50 feet up)
Catholic story: angels rescued: Protestant story: landed in pile of manure
Became part of Evangelical Union he headed
Ferdinand was compelled to call on his nephew, King Philip IV of
Spain for assistance.
With Spanish help Ferdinand’s Army had managed to
subdue and conquer the Palatinate, and re-catholicize
Bohemia.



Frederick V defeated by Emperor Ferdinand II allied with
Maximilian and Philip IV at the Battle of White Mountain in 1620
Spanish and Bavarian troops soon occupied the Palatinate itself.
Emperor tried to force Catholicism on this Calvinistic region.
In 1623, Frederick was put under the ban of the Empire, and his
territories and Electoral dignity granted to the Duke (now Elector)
of Bavaria, Maximilian I
Ferdinand II
The Danish Period (1625-29):

The Lutheran King Christian IV of Denmark, wished to extend Danish
influence in the HRE.





Christian was quickly humiliated and forced to retreat by Ferdinand.





Helped neighboring Protestant Saxony vs HRE
Feared for sovereignty of Denmark if Saxony under HRE dictatorship
Lead Protestant forces against Catholic Ferdinand’s
Financed by Richelieu of France (Catholic) & Dutch against HRE power
Ferdinand hired Albrecht of Wallenstein as a mercenary. Wallenstein was a
Bohemian nobleman who had made himself rich from the confiscated estates of his
countrymen.
pledged his army of between 30,000 and 100,000 soldiers to Ferdinand II in return
for the right to plunder the captured territories
However, By 1628 Wallenstein commanded as army of 100,000 and was no longer
under Ferdinand’s control. Victory over Christian took him to the gates of the capital
of Denmark..
However, without a navy, couldn’t conquer completely, and with war too expensive,
Ferdinand settled. Christian agreed to abandon his support of Protestants if could
keep Denmark.
Edict of Restitution



Ferdinand II wanted to take back the Lutheran holdings that were, according to the
Peace of Augsburg, rightfully the possession of the Catholic Church.
two Archbishoprics, sixteen bishoprics, and hundreds of monasteries.
It looked like Catholics had won and the war was over, BUT
The Swedish Period (1630-35):

Gustavus Adolphus of the strongly
Lutheran Sweden came to rescue of
Protestant forces





Worried about HRE aggression vs Sweden
Protestant, wanted to support others
Wanted economic influence with German cities
bankrolled by France and the Dutch, and allies with
Brandenburg and Saxony, decided to join the fight.
Adolphus, a military genius, won a
smashing victory at Breitenfeld in 1630.

Ferdinand fired Wallenstein, then reinstated him vs
Gustavus Adolphus

Adolphus’s army met Wallenstein’s at the Battle of Lutzen, Nov.
1632.


Ferdinand had Wallenstein assassinated in 1634.



Swedish forces won, but Gustavus Adolphus killed in battle (see
illustration) Without Swedish leadership, the Protestant forces lost
battles
W was negotiating peace with Protestants
Ferdinand feared he might desert to Protestants
Swedish portion of war ends with Peace of Prague




Delayed enforcement of the
Edict of Restitution for 40 years
United army of emperor with
armies of German states to
one army of the Holy Roman
Empire
Forbade German princes to
have alliances between them
or with foreign powers.
Gave amnesty to any ruler
who took up arms against
the Emperor after arrival of
the Swedes in 1630.
The Swedish-French Period (1635-48):

The Peace of Prague didn’t satisfy the French,
especially Cardinal Richelieu, chief advisor to Louis
XIII (Henry IV’s son)



With the Dutch and Protestant German forces,
France attacked HRE imperial armies with much
success




Habsburgs still powerful, with territory on France’s eastern
border and north in the Low Countries
The French (Catholic) openly entered the war, ironically, on
side of Protestants. The war lasted 13 years after that,
warring just for the sake of warfare.
Habsburgs invaded eastern France in retaliation, but
were beaten
The combined Protestant forces defeated imperial
armies
The fighting ended with the deaths of Richelieu and
Louis XIII
By the time that peace talks began in 1644, an
estimated 1/3 of the German population had died,
with economy and cities in ruins.


Civilian deaths due to armed conflict, famine and
disease.
Much of the destruction of civilian lives and property
was caused by the cruelty and greed of mercenaries.
Treaty of Westphalia


Brought all hostilities in HRE to an end.
It rescinded Ferdinand’s Edict of Restitution
and firmly reasserted the major feature of the
religious settlement of the Peace of
Augsburg.


Cuius regio
Gave the Calvinists their long-sought legal
recognition.
Treaty of the Pyrenees

France and Spain remained at war outside
the HRE after the Treaty of Westphalia until
1659, when French victories forced on the
Spanish the Treaty of Pyrenees, making
France the dominant European power.