Download The French Revolution

The French Revolution
World History
Chapter 22
5/24/2017
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Chapter Themes





Revolution: the French overthrow their
absolute monarchy
Change: The National Assembly establishes a
constitutional government
Conflict: The new French republic faces
enemies at home and abroad
Movement: Napoleon becomes France’s
emperor and conquers much of Europe
Reaction: European leaders try to reestablish
the old order
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The Old Order
Section 1
Working men and women yearn
for a better way of life
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French Society Divided

Source of unhappiness was from France’s
class system
– French people divided into three estates
– Estates determine legal rights and status
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French Society Divided

France’s Three Estates
– First Estate: Catholic clergy
– Second Estate: Nobility
– Third Estate: Everyone else (97%)
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French Society Divided

Members of Third Estate resented
privileges of First and Second Estates
– Not required to pay taxes
– Nobility received high positions in
government, church, and army
– Nobility could hunt and carry swords
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French Society Divided
Third Estate limited by birth
 Wealth and education not factors in
achieving higher status for Third Estate

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The First Estate
Roman Catholic clergy
 About 1% of population
 Comprised of two groups

– Higher clergy
– Lower clergy
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The First Estate

Higher clergy
– Bishops, abbots, noblemen by birth
– Controlled 5-10% of the land of France
– Received income
 From land production
 Tithe from each church member
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The First Estate

Money raised from First Estate
– Supported schools
– Aided poor people
– Maintained church property
– Paid for grand lifestyles of higher clergy, often
at expense of duties
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The First Estate

The Lower clergy
– Parish priests
– Poorer backgrounds
– Socially, more Third Estate
– Ran schools
– Cared for poor
– Resented lifestyles of higher clergy
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The Second Estate
The nobility
 About 2% of population
 Owned about 25% of French land
 Enjoyed many privileges, lived in great
style

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The Second Estate
Held high posts in the government and
military
 Lived in Palace of Versailles or lavish
estates
 Main income from feudal dues from
peasants living on and working their land

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The Third Estate

Largest social group in France
– Peasants
– Artisans
– Bourgeoisie (middle class)
– Few political rights/privileges
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The Third Estate

Bourgeoisie
– Doctors, lawyers, merchants, and business
managers
– Educated/well-read
– Lived in towns and cities
– Read Enlightenment works
– Believed in freedom and social justice
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The Third Estate

Artisans
– Mostly poor
– Lived in cities
– Low wages
– Poor working conditions
– Many in slums of Paris
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The Third Estate

Peasants
–
–
–
–
Largest group
Owned 40% of land
No voice in government
Very poor due to payments to other estates





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Tithe to clergy
Feudal dues
Fees
Fines to nobles
Taille (land tax) to the king
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Growing Unrest
Third Estate began calling for change
 Growing population demanded more
resources
 Cost of living increased
 Nobles charged higher fees for use of mills
and wine presses

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Growing Unrest

Members of the bourgeoisie were also
wanting change due to
– Higher prices and stagnant wages
– Desire for more political power

Nobles wanted to increase political power
because the king held absolute control
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Growing Unrest

Growing government financial crisis
– Wars Louis XIV (Sun King) had fought
– Extravagant court of Louis XV
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Growing Unrest

Louis XVI became king in 1774
– 19 years old
– His wife, Marie Antoinette, one year younger
– Recognized growing crisis
– Supported the American Revolution, adding to
financial problem
– Started government cost-cutting measures
– Began taxing nobility and clergy; they refused
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Growing Unrest
By 1886 banks stopped loaning the
government money
 Crop failures; bread shortages
 Privileged classes refused to help
government
 Louis XVI summons the Estates-General in
May 1789—a bold move—to attempt to
increase taxes (raise revenues)

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Calling the Estates Together
Estates General had not met since 1614
 Representatives of each Estate
 Louis XVI hoped to acquire taxes from
First and Second Estates

– Nobles refused
– Wanted to protect their privileges, weaken
royal power, and gain government power
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Calling the Estates General

Each estate had a single vote
– Nobles hoped First and Second Estates (2
votes) would dominate Third Estate (1 vote)
– Third Estate refused the plan
 Claimed to have more right than First and Second
Estates to represent the nation
 Called for meeting of the three estates with each
delegate voting as an individual
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Calling the Estates General

Third Estate held the voting advantage
under their plan
– Had almost as many delegates as other two
estates combines
– Several reform-minded clergy and nobles
support reform

Third Estate called for a combined
meeting of the three Estates
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Calling the Estates Together
Louis XVI insisted the estates meet
separately, denying the Third Estate plan
 Refusing the king’s demands, the Third
Estate was locked out of the Estatesgeneral

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Calling the Estates Together

Third Estate named themselves the
National Assembly
– Gathered on nearby tennis court
– Took and oath called the Tennis Court Oath
 Promised not to disband until they had written a
constitution for France
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Calling the Estates General
Louis XVI orders the first two estates to
join the third
 Louis also called out troops due to
possibility of trouble

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A Call to Revolt

At the national Assembly, debates raged
on among the three estates
– First and Second Estates argued for their
continued rights
– Third Estate wanted total equality

Louis XVI gathered troops around palace
– People concerned he may dissolve national
Assembly
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The Fall of the Bastille

The Bastille symbolized the injustices of
the monarchy
– Bastille was weapons repository
– Bastille was a prison
– Angry mob went to Bastille to get weapons to
defend National Assembly
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The Fall of the Bastille

To calm the crowd, the commander
lowered the drawbridge and let them in
– They freed the 7 prisoners
– The soldiers opened fire, killing 98 rioters
– Several soldiers and commander killed
– Rioters take the prison

The fall of the Bastille led to a
revolutionary government in Paris
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Violence in the Countryside

The fall of the Bastille released a wave of
violence throughout France called the
Great Fear
– Driven much by rumors
– Fears that nobles hired robbers to kill
peasants
– Peasants arm themselves and seize properties
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Violence in the Countryside

Peasants drove many landlords off their
property
– Broke into manor houses
– Robbed granaries
– Destroyed feudal records

Thus began the first wave of the French
Revolution
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Constitutional
Government
Section 2
Violence swept the countryside while
the National Assembly worked to
create a new French government
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End of the Old Order

Countryside violence convinced nobles to enact
reform through the National Assembly
– Feudalism was eliminated in France
– Abolition of feudal dues and tithes owed by the
peasants
– Nobles agreed to be taxed
– All males citizens could hold government, army and
church office
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The Declaration of Rights

The deputies of the National Assembly
turned to the basic human rights of
citizens
– Inspired by American Declaration of
Independence and Constitution, and English
Bill of Rights
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The Declaration of Rights

Declaration of Rights
– Incorporated the ideas of Enlightenment
– Philosophs Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau
– All people are equal before the law
– Guaranteed freedoms of speech, press, and
religion
– Protections against arbitrary arrest and
punishment
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March to Versailles
Louis XVI refused to accept the
Declaration of Rights
 Citizens feared he would attack the
National Assembly
 Citizens wanted him to move to Paris from
Versailles to show support to the
Assembly

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March to Versailles

October 1789, thousands of women
demanded bread and marched to Louis’
palace in Versailles
– Wielded pitchforks and sticks
– Guards not able to hold them back
– Louis agrees to go to Paris with his family
In Paris, people watched Louis and Marie
Antoinette very carefully
 National Assembly moved to Paris

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A New France

The king and the
National Assembly
move to Paris
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Political Reforms
To pay off political
debts, National
Assembly voted to sell
Catholic Church lands
 The Assembly would
support the church
and aid the poor

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The Tennis Court Oath
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Political Reforms

Assembly passed the
Civil Constitution of
the Clergy
– Each parish elects own
clergy
– Clergy take a loyalty
oath
– Condemned by Pope
Pius VI
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Half of clergy refused
the oath
 Two Catholic
churches emerged

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– One loyal to pope
– One loyal to
government
42
The Constitution of 1791
Kept the monarchy
 Limited royal powers
 Established
unicameral legislature


– One house assembly
– Members chosen by
voters
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Many not happy with
Constitution
– Didn’t go far enough
with reforms
– Went too far
43
Defending the Revolution
Disagreements and
unrest grow
 Louis XVI and Marie
Antoinette flee

– Her brother was
emperor of Austrian
territory
– Left Paris in carriage
at night
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Massacre of Prisoners in jail
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Defending the Revolution
The king and queen
are caught trying to
escape
 Louis forced to accept
the limited monarchy

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Defending the Revolution
New of the French spread throughout
Europe
 French emigres (nobles) fled France to
find help

– They wanted to restore Louis to the throne
– Tried to convince other nations their
monarchies were threatened
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Defending the Revolution

French revolutionary
leaders declared war
on Austria
– They thought Austria
was coming to aid
Louis
– Prussia and Sardinia
joined Austria
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Defending the Revolution

War threw France into
even more turmoil
– Citizens and troops
attacked the palace
and killed many
guards
– King fled to the
National Assembly
which offered not
support
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Defending the Revolution
Radicals suspended
the king’s powers
 Kings family was
imprisoned

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Dawn of a New Era
Section 3
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Overview

French Revolution faced Austria and
Prussia
– Georges-Jacques Danton rallied the people to
fight
– French win astonishing victory at Valmy
– Victory at Valmy saved the revolution
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Birth of a Republic

National Convention met in Paris
– From 1792-1795
– All male
– Most middle class
– Wrote France’s first democratic constitution
– Passed number or reforms
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Birth of a Republic
Power placed in single legislative body
 Based on universal male suffrage (vote)

– Not necessary to own property
– Replaced monarchy’s system of weights and
measurements with metric system
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Death of a King

The Convention used letters between
Louis and other monarchs to discredit him
– Louis was convicted on charges “conspired
against the liberty of the nation”
– In January 1793, he was beheaded by
guillotine
 Revolutionaries had adopted the guillotine as
humane death
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Death of a King

The death of Louis
XVI meant that the
republic would
remain—there was no
turning back
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Toward the Future

Republican enthusiasm swept the country
– Sans-culottes (shopkeepers, artisans,
workers) saw themselves as heroes
People addressed themselves as “citizen”
 They rejected elaborate clothes

– Wore trousers instead knee-high britches
– Sans-culottes “without breeches”
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Toward the Future

Revolution’s future erupted in Convention
– Supporters of the sans-culottes were the
Jacobins—extreme radicals
 Formed the Mountain
 Sat in the back in high benches
– Maximilien Robespierre, Georges-Jacques
Danton, and Jean-Paulo Marat saw
themselves as voice of the revolution
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Toward the Future

Girondists (juh*RAHN*dihsts)
– Moderates
– From Gironde region of France
– Felt revolution had gone far enough
– Wanted to protect the wealthy middle class
from attacks
– Attempted to resist the strength of the
Mountain
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Toward the Future

The Plain
– Seated between the Girondists and the
Mountain
– Undecided for a while
– Majority of the Convention
– As influence of sans-culottes grew, the Plain
began to support the Mountain
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Spreading the Revolution

Europe’s monarch’s were concerned the
revolution could spread and topple their
thrones
– Great Britain, the Netherlands, Spain,
Sardinia, Austria, and Prussia joined forces
against the revolution
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French Expansion

French leaders were determined to
overthrow kings everywhere in Europe
– Danton, “the kings in alliance try to frighten
us, (but) we hurl at their feet, as a gage of
battle, the French king’s head
– Danton called on French leaders to expand
French territory in Europe
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French Expansion

An army poured fro the streets to bring
“liberty, equality, and fraternity” to
Europe’s peoples.
– At first, the French won many battles
– Then, the French underwent series of defeats
 The French commander abandoned his troops and
surrendered
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French Expansion

As the French army was in retreat, the
National Convention took steps to repel
the invasion from other European
countries
– Formed the Committee of Public Safety
 To direct the war effort
 Adopted conscription (draft)
 Called on skills of civilians—the first “people’s war”
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The Revolution in Crisis

There was great infighting with the
revolution
– Girondists accused Jacobins of seeking favor
with the mob
– Jacobins accused Girondists of secretly being
royalists
– Charlotte Carday (Girondist) killed Jacobin
leader Marat and was beheaded
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The Reign of Terror

The Jacobins begin to
crush opposition to
their revolutionary
actions within France
King Louis XVI
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Crushing Opposition

Neighborhood watch
committees turned
suspected traitors
over to the courts
– Mob pressure resulted
in swift decisions
– Innocent people
executed
– Marie Antoinette was
victim of the Terror
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Marie Antoinette
66
Crushing Opposition
Approximately 85% of
those executed were
commoners, e.g.
merchants, peasants
 The Committee of
Public Safety ruled
France and
Robespierre ruled the
committee

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Maximilien Robespierre
67
Republic of Virtue

Jacobin-controlled
Committee of Public
Safety
– Established “Republic
of Virtue”
 Democratic republic
 Honest people and
good citizens
Maximilien Robespierre
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Republic of Virtue

“Republic of Virtue”
– Catholicism seen as enemy of the revolution
– Jacobins began to eliminate Christianity
– Churches were closed or turned into “temples
of reason”
– Later, policy was changed to worship any
Supreme Being
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Jacobin Struggles

Danton called an end to the Terror (1794)
– Robespierre accused Danton of betraying the
cause and had Danton and his followers
executed for disloyalty

Robespierre tried to increase the Terror
– Passed laws giving courts right to prosecute
without hearing evidence
– Question: Had Robespierre become what he
had hated?
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Jacobin Struggles
Under Robespierre’s
directions, executions
began to increase to
350/month
 Robespierre’s own
followers, fearing for
their lives, had him
arrested and
executed

Robespierre
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Jacobin Struggles

Following the
execution of
Robespierre, there
was a great relief
– Paris newspaper
expressed, “we are all
throwing ourselves
into each other’s
arms”
Local committee meeting
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End of the Terror

After Robespierre’s
death, Jacobins lost
power
– Reign of Terror ended
– Wealthier middle class
took control of the
Convention
Marie Antoinette
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End of Reign of Terror
Even royalists came out of hiding
 Fashions changed as people rebelled
against “Republic of Virtue”
 Prices rose and lower classes rioted, but
the army easily put them down
 Some citizens even wanted the monarchy
back

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The Directory

After Robespierre, the Convention wrote a
new constitution
– Ended universal male suffrage—only male
landowners could vote
– Brought government under middle class
– Established 5-man executive council called
The Directory
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The Directory
Served with a two-house (bicameral)
legislature
 Directory faced problems

– Royalists could take over
– San-culottes angry about food shortages
– Used the army to put down groups
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The Directory
Made little effort to resolve economic gap
between rich and poor
 Revolutionary government almost
bankrupt
 Directors beset with scandals
 French people began to look to the army
to save France

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Napoleon Takes Over
As problems with Directory grew, the
army was winning battles against
European monarchs
 Young French general, Napoleon
Bonaparte, began to attract attention

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Napoleon’s Early Fame

Napoleon Bonaparte
– During French
Revolution, his military
skills won him
promotion to rank of
general
Napoleon Bonaparte
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Napoleon’s Early Fame

At age 26 he crushed
royalist uprising
against Directory
– Well placed artillery
cleared the streets
“with a whiff of
grapeshot”
Napoleon Bonaparte
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Napoleon’s Early Fame

Napoleon married
Josephine de
Beauharnis, a leader
of Paris society
– Using her connections,
he won command of
French army
– Defeated Austrians;
France now controlled
Northern Italy
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Josephine de Beauharnis
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Napoleon’s Bold Move

Napoleon was in
Egypt attempting to
cut off British trade
with Middle East and
India
– Won many victories
– Established reputation
as leader and great
general
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Napoleon
82
Napoleon’s Bold Move
England’s Horatio
Nelson destroyed
French fleet in
Alexandria harbor
 French forces
stranded at Pyramids

Napoleon
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Napoleon’s Bold Move

Hearing of trouble at
home and the
Directory is unable to
do anything about it,
Napoleon abandoned
his army in Egypt and
returned to France
Napoleon
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Napoleon’s Bold Move
Napoleon landed
unannounced on the
French coast in
October 1799
 When entering Paris,
he was greeted by
cheering crowds

Napoleon
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Napoleon’s Bold Move
Napoleon seizes
power in coup d’etat
against the Directory
 What conditions led
to Napoleon’s seizing
power? >>>>>>>

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
Answer:
– Food shortages
– Rising prices
– Growing gap between
rich and poor
– Government financial
problems
– Scandals among
directors
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Napoleon’s Empire
Section 4
Napoleon named himself emperor of the French. He
took the crown from the pope and placed it upon his
own head. He showed his intentions to be a strong
ruler. France moved from a democracy to an Empire
in 5 years. How?
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The Consulate

New constitution
actually established a
dictatorship, a
government headed
by an absolute ruler,
not a republic
Napoleon crowns himself
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The Consulate

The executive branch
was a committee of
three members
– Consuls
– Took their title from
ancient Rome
– Napoleon became First
Consul
– Napoleon quickly took
the most power
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Napoleon
89
Restoring Order

Napoleon restructured
government
– Replaced elected men
with his own
– Placed education
under government
 Created technical
schools, universities,
and secondary schools
Napoleon
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Restoring Order

Secondary schools
called lycees
(lee*SAY) were a step
toward public school
system open to all
children
Napoleon
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Restoring Order

Changed the financial
system

– Created the Bank of
France
– Required every citizen
to pay taxes
His changes brought
high prices and
inflation under control
 Taxes deposited in
bank and used for loans
for businesses
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Restoring Order
Supporters welcomed
his strong
government
 Napoleon named
himself consul for life

– Approved by plebiscite
(popular vote)
Napoleon
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The Napoleonic Code

His Napoleonic Code
made greatest impact
– Rewrote laws to follow
principles of natural
laws
– Used knowledge of the
Enlightenment
– Although, he put state
above the individual
Napoleon Memorial
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The Napoleonic Code

The Napoleonic Code
– All men equal before
the law
– Curtailed freedoms of
speech and press by
permitted censorship
of books, plays, and
pamphlets
– Women’s rights
somewhat curtailed
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The Church

Napoleon made peace with Catholic
Church
– Agreement called Concordat of 1801
– Pope Pius VII
– Acknowledged Catholicism majority religion
– Affirmed religious toleration for all
– Retained right to name bishops
– Pope agreed to loss of church lands; state
agreed to pay salaries of Catholic clergy
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Building an Empire

After naming himself First Consul
– Commanded French forces in defeating both
Italy and Austria
– Persuaded Russia to withdraw from war
– British signed peace treaty, Treaty of Amiens

In 1804, he named himself Emperor of the
French and moved forward in conquest of
nations
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The Battle of Trafalgar

In October 1805,
Napoleon attacked
Great Britain
– Defeated at the Battle
of Trafalgar
– British admiral lord
Nelson defeated
French navy
Lord Nelson
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Economic Blockades

Napoleon tries
economic warfare
against Great Britain
in plan called the
Continental System
– Wanted to destroy
British trade
– Told European nations
he conquered not to
trade with British
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Economic Blockades

Continental System

– Forbade British
imports into ports he
controlled
– Required Russia and
Prussia to go along
with “system”
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Great Britain
responded
– Any ship going to
Europe had to stop at
a British port
– Napoleon countered
that he would seize
any ship that stopped
at Great Britain
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Economic Blockades

The Continental System caused problems
for the U.S.
– Needed to trade with both countries

Ultimately the Continental System failed
– British navy too strong
– French economy suffered, but Napoleon kept
winning battles
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Economic Blockades

The Continental
System was one of
the causes for the
War of 1812 between
the Great Britain and
America
War of 1812, British burn
White House and Capital
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Napoleonic Europe

By 1812, Napoleon controlled most of
Europe
– Became king of Italy
– Brother Joseph became king of Naples and
Spain
– Brother Louis became king of Holland
– Abolished Holy Roman Empire
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Napoleonic Europe

Napoleon’s Europe…
– Created the Confederation of the Rhine
 Loose organization of German states
 Led Prussia to declare war on France but France
easily crushed them
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Napoleonic Europe

Napoleon’s conquered peoples resented
paying taxes to France and serving in
French armies
– Gave conquered people feelings of
nationalism
 Yearning for self rule, customs, and traditions
 Nationalism helped stir revolts against France
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Napoleonic Empire
In 1812, the Spaniards, with the aid of
British troops led by the Duke of
Wellington, overthrew French occupiers
 Spain reinstates their old king under
limited system of monarchy
 Prussia joined in the revolt against
Napoleon

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Downfall of the Empire

Russia resumed trade with Britain
– Signaled an end to the Empire
– Viewed Napoleon’s control of Europe as threat
to Russia
– Continental System had hurt Russia
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The Invasion of Russia

Napoleon was outraged by Russia’s
withdrawal from the Continental System
– Assemble army of 600,000 troops
– Long march to Moscow started May 1812
– Russians retreated and adopted a “scorchedearth policy”
 A policy of burning everything along the way
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The Invasion of Russia
French entered Moscow, but Russians
burned it to the ground
 Harsh Russian Winter set in

– French troops had no shelter
– Impossible situation for French troops
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The Invasion of Russia

Despite the harsh Winter, Napoleon
delayed before ordering retreat
– Russians relentlessly attacked them
– Russians rout the French army
– Five of six French soldiers died—500,000
men—from battles or blizzards
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Defeat

From all directions, Russians, Prussians,
Spaniards, English, Austrians, Italians sent
armies to defeat Napoleon
– Defeated Napoleon at Leipzig in October 1813

By March 1814, allies were in Paris,
forcing Napoleon to surrender and
abdicate as emperor
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Defeat

The victors restored
the French throne to
Louis XVIII, reduced
France’s boundaries
to those of 1792, and
exiled Napoleon to
Elba, an island off the
coast of Italy
Napoleon
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Defeat

Napoleon returned to
France on March 1,
1815
Napoleon
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Defeat

Napoleon’s return
– Won popular support
– Troops joined him
– Countries feared he
may gain former
strength
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Defeat

European
governments
decisively defeat
Napoleon at Waterloo
in the Austrian
Netherlands, June
1815
Napoleon at Waterloo
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Defeat
Duke of Wellington
led forces from
Prussia, Great Britain,
and the Netherlands
 Napoleon placed
under house arrest on
the island of Saint
Helena in the South
Atlantic. Died in 1821

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Napoleon’s Legacy

Napoleon’s legacy
– Secured the French
Revolution
– Spread Enlightenment
ideas throughout
Europe
– Set uniform standards
of government
– Napoleon’s empire
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Peace in Europe
Section 5
Congress of Vienna met to restore European
political balance and settle disputes among
great powers
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Overview

The main nations meeting in the Congress
of Vienna were
– Great Britain
– Prussia
– Russia
– Austria

Meeting to restore political balance and
settle other disputes
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The Congress of Vienna

Austria’s chief minister, Prince Klemens
von Metternich, served as host
– Believed Europe should be restored to what is
was before French Revolution
– Settlements guided by three principles
 Compensation
 Legitimacy
 Balance of Power
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The Congress of Vienna
Compensation: countries should be repaid
for expenses of fighting French
 Legitimacy: restore monarch who ruled
before Napoleon
 Balance of power: no country should
dominate continental Europe

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Redrawing the Map

Allies defeating Napoleon redrew map of
Europe
– France gave up recently gained territory
– France to pay large indemnity to other
countries
– Great Britain took islands in West Indies
– Austria gained Lombardy and Venetia in Italy
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Redrawing the Map
Great Britain, Austria, and France agreed
to resist any further Prussian or Russian
territorial expansion
 Prussia received extensive new territories
along the Rhine River and in Saxony
 Russia received most of the Polish territory
formerly held by Prussia and Austria

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Restoring the Monarchies

Believing the divine-right monarchy was
necessary for proper order
– Delegates restored the absolute monarchs
who had ruled Europe before Napoleon
The congress reduced French borders to
those of 1790
 Congress established buffer states (neutral
territories) around French territory

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Forces Changing Europe

Most diplomats deciding at Vienna were
reactionaries—people opposing change
and wanting return to earlier times
– Believed a return to strong monarchs
necessary to maintain peace
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Forces Changing Europe

Reactionaries hoped plans would thwart
the spread of liberalism – a political
philosophy
– Accepted the ideas of the Enlightenment
– Democratic reforms
– Freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and
religious freedom
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Forces Changing Europe

Reactionaries hoped to crush the rise of
nationalism
– New boundaries, for example, crushed the
hopes of the Polish people to have a united
nation
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Alliances
To prevent democratic and nationalist
revolutions, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia,
Russia, and France formed the Quadruple
Alliance, which met for the first time in
1818.
 The Alliance was to meet periodically

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Alliance

The goals of the alliance included
preservation of territorial boundaries set at
the Congress of Vienna, exclusion of
Napoleon Bonaparte and his heirs from
French rule, and prevention of
revolutionary movements
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Alliance

Czar Alexander I of Russia created the
Holy Alliance, calling for Christian rulers in
Europe to cooperate as a union of
monarchs
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The Concert of Europe
The meeting of the two alliances, held to
settle international problems peaceably,
came to be known as the Concert of
Europe
 For many years, Metternich used the
Concert to oppose liberalism and national
unity

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The Concert of Europe

Metternich persuaded King Frederick
William III of Prussia to pass a series
repressive measures in 1819
– So-called Carlsbad Decrees imposed strict
censorship on all publications and suppressed
freedom of speech
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The Concert of Europe

New challenges arose
– In Spain, liberal reformers forced their
monarch to agree to constitutional
government in 1820
– In 1821, Greek nationalists revolted against
Turkish rule
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The Concert of Europe

The nationalistic spirit fostered by the
French revolution would not die in Europe,
rendering vulnerable the stable political
system the Congress of Vienna envisioned
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