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医学史简论（6)
A Brief History of Medicine
浙江大学医学院 余 海
Zhejiang University School of Medicine
文艺复兴和医学：解剖学的发展
William Harvey
1578-1657
Harvey announced his
discovery of the circulatory
system in 1616 and in 1628
published his work Exercitatio
Anatomica de Motu Cordis et
Sanguinis in Animalibus (An
Anatomical Exercise on the
Motion of the Heart and Blood
in Animals), and described
the pulmonary circulation and
systemic circulation
Heart output：100-150ml x65=10p
With careful observation and
quantitative experiments
challenged Galen’s theory on
the artery and vein
显微解剖学Microscopic Anatomy
Early 17th century English man Digges and Dutch
spectacle maker Zaccharias and Hans Janssen invented
first microscopy
Two convex lenses
显微解剖学的发展Microscopic Anatomy
1610 Galileo worked our the
priciples of lenses and made a
better instrument with focusing
device enlarging for 70 times
显微解剖学的发展
1694
马尔比基 1628-
Marcello Malpighi
Microscopic Anatomy
Observed biological tissues
with microscope as the
pioneer of histology and
embryology
显微解剖学的发展Microscopic Anatomy
The discovery of capillary, microscopic structure
of lung and kidney
Malpighian alveoli
Capillaries in frog
mesentery
Malpighian corpuscle
（Malpighian body）
Malpighian Tubules
显微解剖学的发展Microscopic Anatomy
虎克
1635-1702
Robert Hooke
显微解剖学的发展Microscopic Anatomy
Discovery of compound
eyes in insects
The discovery of cell and its
naming (cork)
显微解剖学的发展Microscopic Anatomy
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
1632-1723
A Dutch cloth merchant
used new method for
grinding and polishing
tiny lenses of great
curvature which gave
magnifications up to 270
diameters
显微解剖学的发展
Microscopic Anatomy
Leeuwenhoek was first to see and
describe bacteria as animalcules (tiny
animals), became the father of
microbiology, he was also first to record
microscopic observations of muscle fibers,
spermatozoa, and blood flow in capillaries.
Origin of Medicine
Egypt
Babylon
India
China
Western Medicine
Greece
Rome
Medieval
Arabic medicine
Renaissance
Pre-modern medicine
Modern medicine
TCM
Premodern Medicine: background
1642-1651 English Civil War (revolution) Replacement of English monarchy
with the Commonwealth of England, then with a Protectorate under Lord of Protector Olive
Cromwell， James II restoration of monarch（1660） ，William III (Prince of
Orange) and Mary II overthrew James II, “Glorious Revolution”(1688） “The
Bill of Rights” was passed and established constitutional monarchy（1689）
Oliver Cromwell
1649.1.30
Trial and execution of Charles I for treason
Premodern Medicine: background
French
revolution
The tripod
"Liberty leading the people"
近代医学发展的影响因素：资产阶级革命
French Revolution 1789-1799
Storming of Bastille
1793.1.21
Execution of Louis XVI
January 21, 1793
Pre-modern Medicine: Industrial revolution
The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and
early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture,
manufacturing, production, mining, and transportation had a
profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions
in Britain. The changes subsequently spread throughout
Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The onset
of the Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point in
human society; almost every aspect of daily life was
eventually influenced in some way.
瓦特 1736-1819
James Watt
Steam power James Watt
improved steam
engine provided
powerful energy for
industrial revolutin
Pre-modern Medicine: Industrial revolution
火车
Locomotive
轮船
Steamer boat
(George Stephenson 1781-1848)
and his locomotive（1829）
近代医学发展的影响因素：工业革命
The starting point-textile industry
珍妮纺纱机
Spinner Jenny
Pre-modern Medicine: Scientific revolution
Laws of Motion:
1. First law: Law of
Inertia
2. Second law F=ma
3. Third law:
Action=Reaction
Universal Gravitation
Isaac Newton 1642-1727
First law: If there is no net force on an object, then its velocity is constant. The
object is either at rest (if its velocity is equal to zero), or it moves with constant
speed in a single direction.[
Second law: The acceleration a of a body is parallel and directly proportional
to the net force F acting on the body, is in the direction of the net force, and is
inversely proportional to the mass m of the body, i.e., F = ma.
Third law: When a first body exerts a force F1 on a second body, the second
body simultaneously exerts a force F2 = −F1 on the first body. This means that
F1 and F2 are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Pre-modern Medicine: Scientific thinking & methodology
(“Enlightenment”) Descartes' rationalism and Bacon's empiricism had to be
combined to produce the modern scientific method
培根 Francis Bacon 1561-1626
According to Bacon, scientists should experiment freely and
collect facts about everything in the world, until in due time
the accumulation of facts would make clear the way nature
behaves. From the storehouse of accumulated facts,
scientists would induce the laws of nature. (inductive
methodology )
Knowledge itself is power
笛卡儿 Rene Descartes 1596-1650
According to Descartes, scientists should deduce the
laws of nature by pure reason, starting from the
axioms of mathematics and our knowledge of the
existence of God. Experiments needed to be done
only to verify that the logical deduction of the laws of
nature was correct. (deductive methodology)
His aphorism is I think therefore I am
Pre-modern medicine: chemical school
（Iatrochemie）
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Jan Baptista van Helmont
(1580 -1644)
Flemish physician, philosopher,
mystic, and chemist
van Helmont demonstrated that
acid was the digestive element in
the stomach and was neutralized
by alkali in the intestine and that
blood combined with a “ferment
from the air”.
His theory of “ferments” as the
agents bringing about
physiological processes is a crude
precursor of the idea of enzymes
(fermentum).
Pre-modern medicine: chemical school
（Iatrochemie）
He was professor of medicine at
the University of Leiden, Holland
Franciscus Sylvius
(1614-1672)
He believes that all life and disease
processes are based on chemical
actions.
That school of thought attempted to
understand medicine in terms of
universal rules of physics and
chemistry.
Sylvius also introduced the concept of
chemical affinity as a way to
understand the way the human body
uses salts and contributed greatly to
the understanding of digestion and of
bodily fluids.
Pre-modern medicine: physical school
（Iatrophysics）
Alfonso Borelli
1608-1679
Italian physiologist,
physicist and
mathematician
father of modern
biomechanics
Pre-modern medicine: physical school
（Iatrophysics）
French physician and philosopher,
materialists of the enlighterment. He is
best known for his work L’homme
machine (Man a machine published
anonymously 1747), wherein he
claimed that human beings were
machines.
。
Julien Offray de La Mettrie
美特里 1709-1751
Three major discoveries of 19th century
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能量守恒和转化定律
The Law of Energy Conservation
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生物进化论
The Evolution
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细胞学说的建立
The Cell Theory
能量守恒和转化定律
Sanctorius (1561-1636）
Italian physiologist, professor of
Padua
For a period of thirty years
Sanctorius weighed himself,
everything he ate and drank, as
well as his urine and feces. He
compared the weight of what
he had eaten to that of his
waste products, the latter being
considerably smaller. He
produced his theory
of insensible perspiration as an
attempt to account for this
difference.
Weighing Chair
The Law of Energy Conservation
Geman physician and physicist and one of the
founders of thermodynamics.
In 1841 he made the original statements of
the conservation of energy or the first
versions of the first law of thermodynamics:
“Energy can be neither created nor destroyed”
In 1842, Mayer described the vital chemical
process now referred to as oxidation as the
primary source of energy for any living
creature. His achievements were overlooked
and priority for the discovery of the
mechanical equivalent of heat was attributed
to James Joule in the following year.
He also proposed that plants convert light into
chemical energy.
Julius Robert von Mayer
(1814-1878)
The Law of Energy Conservation
James Joule （1818-1889）
English physicist and brewer
He studied the nature of heat and
discovered its relationship to
mechanical work (mechanical heat
equivalent)，confirmed the law of
conservation of energy, which led to
the development of the first law of
thermodynamics
Evolution
All species of life have
evolved over time from common
ancestors, through the process he
called natural selection.
In modern evolutionary theory,
Darwin’s scientific discovery is the
unifying theory of the life sciences,
providing logical explanation for
the diversity of life.
Charles Robert Darwin
English naturalist
(1809-1882)
Evolution
Charles Robert Darwin
In his five-year (1831-1836)
voyage on HMS
Beagle established him as
an eminent geologist
Puzzled by the geographical
distribution of wildlife
and fossils he collected on
the voyage, Darwin
investigated the
transmutation of species and
conceived his theory of
natural selection in 1838。
达
尔
文
雀
Darwin’s Finches
加拉帕戈斯群岛 Galapagos Islands
属厄瓜多尔，距南美大陆1000公里 由23岛屿和组成，
称“生物进化活博物馆”
加拉帕戈斯象龟
Galapagos Tortoise
共12亚种，平塔岛亚种
“Longsome George”
2012.6.24 死亡
On the Origin of Species
established evolutionary descent with
modification as the dominant scientific
explanation of diversification in nature
“The struggle for existence, Survival of
the fittest” (物竞天择，适者生存)
“I have called this principle, by which
each slight variation, if useful, is
preserved, by the term Natural
Selection.”
Published in 1859
He examined human evolution and sexual selection in The
Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex(1871),
followed by The Expression of the Emotion in Man and
Animals (1872)
Darwin 2009 commemorations
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In the United Kingdom a special
commemorative issue of the two pound
coin shows a portrait of Darwin facing
a chimpanzee surrounded by the
inscription 1809 DARWIN 2009, with the
edge inscription ON THE ORIGIN OF
SPECIES 1859
In September 2008, the Church of
England issued an article saying that the
200th anniversary of his birth was a fitting
time to apologise to Darwin "for
misunderstanding you and, by getting our
first reaction wrong, encouraging others
to misunderstand you still".[
Evolution：Evidence from embryology
Ernst Haeckel1834-1919
Recapitulation theory : an
individual organism's
biological development, or
ontogeny, parallels and
summarizes its species'
entire evolutionary
development, or phylogeny
ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
fish, amphibians, reptiles, aves, mammalia, primate
The Cell Theory
The discovery of plant cell (cork) and
its naming
Robert Hooke
1635-1702
The Cell Theory
German botanist and co-founder
of the cell theory, along with
Theodor Schwann and Rudolf
Virchow.
He wrote Contributions to
Phytogenesis (1838), in which he
stated that the different parts of
the plant organism are composed
of cells
(inductive)
Matthias Schleiden
1804-1881
The Cell Theory
In Microscopic Investigations on the
Accordance in the Structure and
Growth of Plants and Animals (1839),
in which he declared that "All living
things are composed of cells and cell
products." Thus cell theory was
definitely constituted.
Theodor Schwann
1810-1882
Schwann
cell
Myelin sheath
The Cell Theory
Cells are the unit of structure, function and
reproduction in living things.
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Anything that is living is composed of cells
The chemical reactions of an organism
occur in cells
All cells come from preexisting cells
The development of pathology: Organ
pathology
Giovanni Battista Morgagni
1682-1771
Italian anatomist,
professor of Padua
University, and he is
celebrated as the father
of the modern
anatomical pathology
The development of pathology
1761 published De Sedibus et causis
morborum per anatomem indagatis
(On the seats and causes of diseases
investigated by anatomy)
Based on 70 letters containing the
records of some 646 dissections,
including the symptoms during the
course of the malady and the
conditions found after death.
He made pathological anatomy a
science, and diverted the course of
medicine into new channels of
exactness or precision
The development of pathology :
Histopathology
French anatomist and physiologist,
is best remembered as the father
of modern histology
and pathology
He dissected 600 cadavers/year,
was the first to introduce the
notion of tissue as distinct entities.
He maintained that diseases
attacked tissues rather than
whole organs.
Marie François Xavier Bichat
1771-1802
The development of pathology :
cellular pathology
German doctor, anthropologist,
public health activist, pathologist,
prehistorian, biologist and
politician, referred to as the
“Father of Pathology,” and
founded the field of social
medicine. (duel challenged by Bismarck)
Omnis cellula e cellula ("every
cell originates from another
existing cell like it.") which he
published in 1858
First one who discovered leukemia
Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow
1812-1902
Medical Terms named after Virchow
Virchow's angle — The angle between the
nasobasilar line and the nasosubnasal line.
Virchow's disease — leontiasis ossium.
Virchow's line — a line from the root of the nose
to the lambda.
Virchow's method of autopsy — A method of
autopsy where each organ is taken out one by
one.
Virchow’s node— the presence of metastatic
cancer in a lymph-node in the supraclavicular
fossa (root of the neck left of the midline). Also
known as Troisier’s sign.
Virchow’s triad— factors contributing toward
venous thrombus formation.
Newton’s Apple
Louis Pasteur
Essay writing
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Medicine: its past, present and future
You may choose any topics as long as follow the theme of
“history of medicine”
Should be ORIGINAL Using your own words, not “copy” and
“paste” or “Control-C””Control-V”
No less than 2000 words, including title, abstract, full text,
references, with your name and student number
Word format, student number as file name
Electronic version only
Send to: [email protected], before November 16, 2014