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ISLAM
THE FIRST TRANSREGIONAL CIVILIZATION
CURRENT MUSLIM WORLD
PRE-ISLAMIC ARABIA
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The Arabian peninsula
– Largely deserts with mountains, oases
– Fertile areas in the southern mountains around Yemen
– Nomadic Bedouin
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Lived in the desert-covered peninsula for millennia
Kept herds of sheep, goats, and camels
Organized in family and clan groups
Importance of kinship and loyalty to the clan
Many tribes were matrilineal with some rights for women
– Urbanized Arabs in oases, cities across area
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Post-classical Arabia
– Romans (Byzantines), Persians had client kingdoms
• Roman Nabateans (Arabia Petropolis, Petra)
• Herod was an Arabic Jew who ruled a client kingdom
• Queen Zenobia of Palmyra
– Active in long-distance over land trade
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Trade from Damascus to Mecca/Medina to Yemen
Trade across desert to Persian Gulf and along coast
Part of Red Sea trade system; links between Yemen, Abyssinia
Trade includes gold, frankincense and myrrh
– Religions
• Tribes were polytheist worshipping sun, moon, spirits
• Groups of Jews, Monophysite Christians in cities
• Zoroastrian merchants throughout region
TRADE ROUTES c. 500 CE
PHYSICAL MAP OF ARABIA
MUHAMMAD’S EARLY LIFE
• Muhammad ibn Abdullah
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Born in a Mecca merchant family, 570 C.E.
Difficult early life: orphaned, lived with uncle
Married a wealthy widow, Khadija, in 595
Became a merchant at age 30, exposed to various faiths
• Muhammad's spiritual transformation
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Conflict at Mecca
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His teachings offended others, especially ruling elite of Mecca
Attacks on greed offended wealthy merchants
Attacks on idolatry threatened shrines, especially the Kaa'ba
The hijra
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At age 40, on retreat he experienced visions
There was only one true god, Allah ("the god")
Allah would soon bring judgment on the world
The archangel Gabriel delivered these revelations to Muhammad
Did not intend to found a new religion, but his message became appealing
Under persecution, Muhammad, followers fled to Medina, 622 C.E.
The move, known as hijra, was starting point of Islamic calendar
The first umma organized in Medina
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Organized a cohesive community of the faithful
Led commercial adventure, lanuched raids against Mecca caravans
Helped the poor and needy
• Returned in triumph to Mecca after winning wars
THE MESSANGER
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The "seal of the prophets"
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Who was Muhammad
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Referred to himself as "seal of the prophets"
Final prophet of Allah but not the Son of God
Held Hebrew scriptures and New Testament in high esteem
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Referred to followers as “Peoples of the Book”
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If they did not threaten umma, were to be protected
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Paid a head tax for right to worship, did not tithe
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Could not kill, hurt people of the book unless they attacked Muslims
Determined to spread Allah's wish to all humankind
• The Quran
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Followers compiled Muhammad's actual revelations after his death
Rewritten by the 2nd Caliph into a work of magnificent poetry
Muslims are commanded to read the Quran, therefore literacy high
Quran ("recitation"), became the holy book of Islam
Suras are chapters; organized from longest to shortest
147 Suras
• The Hadith
– Sayings attributed to Muhammad; not included in Quran
– Three levels from most accurate/likely to highly suspect
CONQUEST
OF ARABIA
• Muhammad's return to Mecca
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Conquered Mecca, 630
Created a theocratic government dedicated to Allah
Suppressed rebellious tribes in area including Jewish tribes
Destroyed pagan shrines and built mosques
• The Kaa'ba
– The Kaa'ba shrine was not destroyed
– In 632, Muhammad led the first Islamic pilgrimage to the Kaa'ba
• The Five Pillars of Islam
– Obligations taught by Muhammad, known as the Five Pillars
– The Five Pillars bound the umma into a cohesive community of faith
– Profession of faith, prayer, tithing, pilgrimage, fasting at Ramadan
• Islamic law: the sharia
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Emerged during the centuries after Muhammad
Detailed guidance on proper behavior in almost every aspect of life
Drew laws, precepts from the Quran
Drew traditions from Arabic culture, Hadith
Through the sharia, Islam became a religion and a way of life
6TH CENTURY ARABIA
SYMBOLS OF ISLAM
EXPANSION OF ISLAM
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The caliph
– Upon Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr served as caliph ("deputy")
– Became head of state, chief judge, religious leader, military commander
– First four called Orthodox caliphs because they were original followers
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The expansion of Islam
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633-637, seized Byzantine Syria, Palestine, Mesopotamia
640's, conquered Egypt and north Africa
651, toppled Sassanid dynasty
711-718, conquered Hindu region of Sind; Iberia, NW Africa
Success due to weakness of enemies, vigor of Islam
• Dar al Islam or Dar el Harb?
– The Islamic world where the Sharia is in force, Islam dominates
– Dar el Harb is the land of the unbelievers, or non-Muslims
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The Shia and Sunnis
– The Sunnis ("traditionalists") accepted legitimacy of early caliphs
• Were Arab as opposed to Islamic
• Did not feel caliphs had to be related to Muhammad
– The Shia sect supported Ali (last caliph and son in law of Muhammad)
• A refuge for non-Arab converts, poor; followers in Irag, Iran
• Felt caliphs should be directly related to Muhammad
– Two sects struggled over succession; produced a civil war, murder
SPREAD OF ISLAM
UMAYYAD
DYNASTY
• The Umayyad dynasty (661-750 C.E.)
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Umayyads had been the clan which ruled Mecca before Muhammad
Umayyad elected caliph, won civil war, established dynasty
Ali murdered by caliph’s followers
Established capital city at Damascus in Syria
Ruled for the interests of Arabian military aristocracy
• Policy toward conquered peoples
– Dhimmis were the conquered Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians
– Levied jizya (head tax) on those who did not convert to Islam
– Even the converts did not enjoy wealth, position of authority
• Umayyad decline
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Caliphs became alienated from Arabs by early 8th century
By the mid-century, faced strong resistance of the Shia faction
The discontent of conquered peoples also increased
Umayyad family slaughtered; only one son escaped to Spain
Formed breakaway Umayyad Dynasty in Spain
ABBASID DYNASTY
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Abu al-Abbas
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A descendant of Muhammad's uncle; allied with Shias and non-Arab Muslims
Seized control of Persia and Mesopotamia during 740's
Shattered Umayyad forces at a battle in 750; annihilated the Umayyad clan
The Abbasid dynasty (750-1258 C.E.)
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Showed no special favor to Arab military aristocracy
Empire still growing, but not initiated by the central government
Abbasid administration
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Relied heavily on Persians, Persian techniques of statecraft
Central authority ruled from the court at Baghdad, newly built city
Governors ruled provinces; Ulama, qadis (judges) ruled local areas
Harun al-Rashid (786-809 C.E.)
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Represented the high point of the dynasty
Baghdad became metropolis, center for commerce, industry, and culture
Abbasid decline
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Struggle for succession between Harun's sons led to civil war
Governors built their own power bases, regional dynasties
Local military commanders took title of Sultan
Popular uprisings and peasant rebellions weakened the dynasty
A Persian noble seized control of Baghdad in 945
Later, the Seljuk Turks controlled the imperial family
AN URBAN
CIVILIZATION
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Arab Urban History
– Pre-Islamic Arabs were both urban, bedouin
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Mecca, Medina, Yemeni cities, cities of Palmyra, Arab Petropolis
Center of the city was a market place often shared with religious center
Cities designed with human-environment interaction in mind
Nomads came to city to trade, city often settled by whole tribes
Arabs had settled in cities in Syria, Iraq, Jordan
– Arabic cities linked to wider world through merchants, trade
– Arab cities exposed to Jews, Persians, Monophysites, Sabeans
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Arabic Empire and Urban Growth
– Islam as a culture requires mosque, merchant: very urban in outlook
• Capital moved from Mecca to Damascus by Umayyads
• Arabs founded military cities on edges of desert to rule empire
– As empire grew, needed something more permanent
• Abbasids moved capital from Damascus, Kufa to Baghdad
• Other designed for purpose cities include Fez, Cairo, Tunis
– Increasing agricultural production contributed to growth of cities
• Cities: centers for administration, industry, trade, education, faith
• Many different ethnic minorities settled in Muslim cities (quarters)
• Mosque at center surrounded by suk, square, in decreasing social order
HARUN AL RASHID
& BAGHDAD
CHANGED ECONOMICS
• Merchants, pilgrims, travelers exchanged foods across empire
• Exchange and spread of food and industrial crops
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Indian plants traveled to other lands of the empire
Staple crops: sugarcane, rice, new varieties of sorghum and wheat
Vegetables: spinach, artichokes, eggplants
Fruits: oranges, lemons, limes, bananas, coconuts, watermelons, mangoes
Industrial crops: cotton, indigo, henna
• Effects of new crops
– Increased varieties and quantities of food
– Industrial crops: basis for a thriving textile industry
– Foodstuffs increased health, populations of cities
• Agricultural experimentation
– Numerous agricultural manuals
– Agricultural methods and techniques improved
– Improved irrigation
A VAST TRADE ZONE
• Camels and caravans
– Overland desert trade traveled mostly by camel caravan
– Caravanserais (motel, corrals) in Islamic cities
– Trading goods usually luxury in nature
• Maritime trade based on technological borrowing
– Arab, Persian mariners borrowed
• Compass from the Chinese
• Lateen sail from southeast Asian, Indian mariners
• Astrolabe from the Hellenistic mariners
– Organization and dominance of trade
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In North Africa across Sahara, down Nile, SW Asia, to India
Eastern Mediterranean, Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Arabia Gulf down coasts
Many cities grew rich from trade
Entrepreneurs often pooled their resources in group investments
Different kinds of joint endeavors
• Banks
– Operated on large scale and provided extensive services
– Letters of credit, or sakk, functioned as bank checks
• Exchange of Ideas included Islam, technology, culture
ISLAMIC TRADE
WOMEN’S CHANGING STATUS
• Pre-Islamic Arab Women
– Arabs as nomads allowed women many rights
– Women often poets, tribe leaders
– Some evidence of matrilineal tribes
• The Quran and women
– Quran enhanced rights, security of women
– Forced husbands to honor contracts, love women
– Allowed women to own property, protected from exploitation
• What produced the change
– Foreign Contacts changed the perspective
• Adopted veiling from Mesopotamia, Persia
• Isolation from India through purdah, harem
– Muslim rights for women
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Often weaken through Hadith, traditions
Often reduced, ignored
Patriarch beliefs reinforced by conquest
Yet Quran, sharia also reinforced male domination
Role of Hadith, Arab traditions reinforced male domination
• Women in West Africa, Central Asia
– Much freer than their Arab, Persian, Indian counterparts
– Carryover of traditions from previous cultural tolerance of women
IMAGE OF WOMEN
ISLAM & OTHER CONTACTS
• Persian influence on Islam
– After Arabs most prominent of Muslims, resisted Arabization
• Cultural traditions often borrowed heavily by Islam
• Became early followers of Shia
– Government and regionalism
• Many advisors (vizer is Persian word) to Caliphs were Persian
• Cultured, diplomatic language of Abbassid court became Persian
– Literary achievements
• Omar Khayyam was greatest of Medieval Muslim poets
• The Arabian Nights largely in a Persian style
• Turkish influences
– Central Asian nomads converted to Islam, developed literary culture
– Invaded SW Asia and made caliphate dependent on Turkish nomads
– Formed military might, leadership of late Abbassid state
• Indian Influences
– Purdah and harem borrowed from Hindus
– "Hindi numerals," which Europeans called "Arabic numerals"
• Greek Influences
– Muslims philosophers especially liked Plato and Aristotle; Greek math
– Effort of harmonizing two traditions met resistance from Sufis
ISLAMIC CULTURAL TRADITION
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Quran, sharia were main sources to formulate moral guidelines
Constant struggle between what is Arabic and what is Islamic
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Use of Arabic script as only language of Islam strengthened trend
Persians, Turks, Indians, and Africans struggled for acceptance
Promotion of Islamic values
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Ulama, qadis, and missionaries were main agents
Education also promoted Islamic values
Sufis
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Islamic mystics, effective missionaries
Encouraged devotion by singing, dancing
Led ascetic, holy lives, won respect
Encouraged followers to revere Allah in own ways
Tolerated those who associated Allah with other beliefs
The hajj
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The Kaa'ba became the symbol of Islamic cultural unity
Pilgrims helped to spread Islamic beliefs and values
TURKS & ISLAM
• Early Turkic Tribes
– Originated in Central Asia, Mongolia
– The Götürk Empire arose c. 6th century
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Confederacy of tribes united under khans
Remained nomadic but adopted Syriac script
Some conversion to Christianity, Buddhism
Broke up over rivalries between clans
– Turkish tribes Turks migrated
• Towards Iran, Russian Steppes
• Became the Khazars and Seljuks
• The Seljuk Turks
– The Sultanate
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Converted to Sunni Islam while in Central Asia
1037: group migrated into Iran, set up a sultanate
1055: captured Baghdad and later Jerusalem
1071: defeated Byzantines at Manzikert and occupied Anatolia
– Sultans and Mameluks
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Left Abbasid caliphs as figurehead
Sultans were military commanders and governors of provinces
Mameluks were slave soldiers – Turkish slaves formed military aristocracy
Large numbers settled Anatolia producing a flowering of Turkish culture
• Sultanates of Delhi and Egypt were Mameluk, Turkish
THE CRUSADES
• Religiously sanctioned wars
– Muslim Jihad has its Christian counterpart
• Early Islam sanctioned Holy Wars, initially Christianity did not
• Muslim conquest of largely Christian lands changed tradition
– Christian Reconquista in Iberia
• Christian knights sanctioned by Church fought Muslims
• Warfare in Iberia, Sicily, Sardinia, Crete preceded 11th century
• “The Crusades”
– A Changed Situation in Southwest Asia
• Turkish conquests changed situation
– They conquered Holy Land
– Arabs had permitted pilgrimage, Turks curtailed it
• The Byzantine Empire
– Byzantines in Schism with West asked Pope for help
– Pope saw chance to reunite churches and end schism
• Church calls for crusades, offers indulgences
– More than nine crusaders
• Initial one conquered Holy Land and set up crusader states
• Next crusades all called to defend conquests
– Opened up West to Islamic contacts but had not impact on Islam
OTHER ISLAMIC REGIONS
• Al-Andalus
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Iberian Peninsular largely conquered by Muslim Berbers 711 – 714
Claimed independence from the Abbasid dynasty
Participated in commercial life of the larger Islamic world
Products of al-Andalus enjoyed a reputation for excellence
Cordoba was a center of learning, commerce, architecture
After death of Abd al Rahman III broke up into petty kingdoms
A unique blended culture
• Arab, Latin, German, Islamic, Christian, Jewish
• Very tolerant and integrated society
– Warred for 700 years with Christian kingdoms in north
• North Africa
– Strong followers of Shia, broke with Abbassids
– Berbers followed many puritanical Shia like movements
– Eventually Fatimids conquered Egypt, formed rival caliphate
• Central Asia
– Largely Turkish, Persian and Islamic but not Arabic
– Tended to be distant from Baghdad and more tolerant
– Integrated into trans-Eurasian trade network
MUSLIM SPAIN &
THE RECONQUISTA
EGYPT DURING PERIOD
• Arab Conquest of Egypt
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Conquered c. 639 CE when Coptic Christians opened borders to Muslims
Arabs ruled through governors but did not seek conversions
Umayyad and Abbasid rule weakened and local sultans took great power
Over-taxation led to revolts and settlement of Arab tribes as soldiers
• Fatimid Egypt
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Arab Shia Muslim dynasty of Egypt 909 – 1171
Rulers belonged to Ismaili branch of Shia Islam
Proclaimed themselves Caliphs
Established Cairo
• Ayyubid Egypt
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A Sunni Dynasty of Kurdish origins 1171 – 1341
Saladin dissolves Fatimid rule, proclaims himself sultan
Spends early part conquering Holy Land, Hejaz, North Africa
Warred with Crusaders but established an amicable relationship
• Lifestyles
– A period of toleration between Muslims, Jews, Coptic Christians
– A time of great prosperity where Egypt was a center of interactions
– Conversion was slow but gradual: Arabic replaced Coptic as main language