Download Implicit memory

5/23/2017
• Learning and Remembering
» Overview of Long Term Memory
◊ Mnemonics and Mnemonists
◊ Ebbinghaus Tradition
» Storing to Episodic Memory
◊ Encoding specificity
» Retrieval from Episodic Memory
◊ Decay and interference
◊ Encoding specificity
» Implicit /Explicit memory
Study Question.
• Why would it likely be better for a student to write their exams in the same
classroom in which they attend lecture? Relate Tulving’s encoding specificity principle
to this phenomenon.
• Describe the levels (depth) of processing approach to memory. What are
incidental learning task and how have they been used to support the depth of processing
position.
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
Endel Tulving
Memory
Declarative
(Explicit)
Facts
(Semantic)
Events
(Episodic) Skills/
Habits
Nondeclarative
(Implicit)
Priming
Nonassociative
Learning
Classical
Conditioning
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
» Tulving’s episodic and semantic distinction
◊ Episodic memory: Memory for events.
◊ Semantic memory: Memory for facts.
» The implicit / explicit distinction
◊ Implicit memory: Memory without awareness
– tested using indirect measures.
E.g., Fragment completion: D A N __ __ __
◊ Explicit memory: Memory with awareness.
– Tested using direct measures.
E.g., Recognition: D A N G E R
Endel Tulving
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
» The procedural / declarative distinction
◊ Procedural memory: Memory for doing things.
◊ Declarative memory: Explicit memory.
– E.g., Milner’s Experiment with H.M.
Endel Tulving
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
<Selection of clips from “Memento”>
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
» Mnemonics
Video clip: Memory Wizards available at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6vsYCSmBcM0
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
» Mnemonics
◊ How good is your memory?
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
» Mnemonics
◊ Mnemonics: Strategies and tricks for improving memory.
◊ Mnemonists: Individuals who demonstrate extraordinary memory
ability.
◊ Imagery and Memory
– Advantage of Pictures over Words
– Advantage of concrete over abstract nouns
– Many mnemonics exploit imagery
The method of loci
The pegword method
◊ Luria’s Mnemonist (SV).
– Synaesthesia
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
» Three mnemonic principles
1.Structure for learning
– Encoding (rehearsal)
2.Use of images/rhymes/acronyms
– Deep, durable memories
3.Storage or retention (depth of processing)
– Retrieval Cues
– Retrieval (encoding specificity)
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
» The Ebbinghaus tradition
Hermann von Ebbinghause
◊ Uber das Gedachtnis (1885)
◊ Method
– Used nonsense syllables (GAH, SIF, etc.)
– The relearning task
Savings score: the reduction in the number of trials necessary for
relearning as compared with original learning.
– MacLeod (1988)
Relearning savings are a result of improved recall.
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
» The Ebbinghaus tradition
Savings (%)
◊ The forgetting curve
Hermann von Ebbinghause
Learning and Remembering
• An overview of long term memory
» The Ebbinghaus tradition
Hermann von Ebbinghause
◊ Evaluation
– Problems with the (exclusive) use of nonsense syllables
AUP, DWN, LEF, RGT, BAK, FOW
– Real life memory
◊ The current position
– Meaning is central to the study of LTM
– Participants in studies use mnemonics
– Ecological validity is important
Learning and Remembering
• Storing information in LTM
» Frequency
◊ We are very sensitive to the frequency of events
» Distinctiveness
◊ The von Restorff effect: improved memory for information that is
made distinct from surrounding information.
» Rehearsal, organization, and imagery
Learning and Remembering
•
Storing information in LTM
»
Rehearsal
◊
◊
◊
Atkinson & Shiffrin’s definition
– A deliberate practicing (recycling) of the contents of STM.
Two effects
1. Maintains information in STM
2. Increases the likelihood that the item will be transferred to
LTM
Hellyer (1962)
– Had participants rehearse out loud and perform a BrownPeteson task (arithmetic).
Learning and Remembering
•
Storing information in LTM
»
Results
Learning and Remembering
• Storing information in LTM
» Rehearsal and serial position effects
◊ Rundas (1971)
– Participants rehearsed out loud.
Learning and Remembering
• Storing information in LTM
» Rehearsal and serial position effects
– Craik & Watkins (1973)
Accuracy
Participants learned 12 lists of twelve words
Instructed that the last four were the most important
Learning and Remembering
•
Storing information in LTM
»
Levels of Processing
◊
Two postulates of the levels of processing approach
1. Physical properties --> shallow processing
Semantic properties --> deep processing
2. The deeper the processing, the more durable the memory.
◊
Two forms of rehearsal
1. Maintenance rehearsal: Rote repetition of information.
2. Elaborative rehearsal: The processing of information on a
meaningful level.
Learning and Remembering
•
Storing information in LTM
»
Empirical support for levels of processing
◊
Hyde & Jenkins (1973)
– Intentional vs Incidental learning
– Three incidental learning conditions
1. Pleasantness (semantic/deep)
2. Letter ‘E’ present? (Physical/shallow)
3. Number of letters (Physical/shallow)
Learning and Remembering
•
Storing information in LTM
»
Empirical support for levels of processing
◊
Hyde & Jenkins (1973)
Learning and Remembering
•
Storing information in LTM
»
Empirical support for levels of processing
◊
The self-reference effect
Learning and Remembering
•
Storing information in LTM
» “The Trouble With Levels”
Alan Baddeley
◊ Defining levels
– Circularity of argument
We know that shallow processing leads to poor memory because..
Processing letters leads to poor memory and…
We know processing letters is shallow…
Because shallow processing leads to poor memory and …
– Task differences
Recall vs. recognition
Glenberg et al. (1977)
• Used Brown-Peterson task with repeated words for phonological
suppression
• Recognition showed effect of amount of rehearsal, not recall
5/23/2017
Learning and Remembering
•
Storing information in LTM
»
Organization
◊
List as many “things that you can eat” as you can.
– Are your answers organized?
Category clustering
– Organization in semantic memory (next week)
– Tulving’s subjective organization
Organization generated by the rememberer for structuring a list where
no organization is supplied by the experimenter
»
Imagery
◊
Paivio’s dual coding hypothesis
– Memory can be coded visually and verbally
Words that can imaged can be stored twice
Learning and Remembering
• Retrieving information from LTM
» Decay
◊ Thorndyke’s law of disuse (use it or lose it)
◊ Bartlett and the reconstructive nature of memory
– We remember only the gist, not details.
» Interference in memory recall
◊ Proactive Interference : Previously learned material
interferes with the learning of new material
◊ Retroactive Interference : New material interferes with
previously learned material.
Learning and Remembering
• Retrieving information from LTM
» Accessibility vs. availability
Learning and Remembering
• Retrieving information from LTM
» Accessibility vs. availability
◊ Tip-of-the-tongue (Brown & MacNeil)
– 49 low-frequency words (e.g., apse, nepotism, sampan), prompted by
brief definitions.
8.5% of trials -> TOT
– Total of 360 TOT states:
224 similar-sound TOTs (e.g., Saipan for sampan)
48% had the same number of syllables as the target
95 similar-meaning TOTs (e.g., houseboat for sampan).
– > 50% can guess the first letter
Learning and Remembering
• Retrieving information from LTM
» Encoding specificity
◊ When is recall better than recognition?
– Tulving’s recognition failure experiment
– Step 1: Study list
head LIGHT
bath NEED
pretty BLUE
etc.
– Step 2: Free association and recognition
Endel Tulving
Learning and Remembering
Endel Tulving
• Retrieving information from LTM
» Encoding specificity
◊ When is recall better than recognition?
dark _______
want _______
sky _______
________
________
________
________
________
________
Etc.
______
______
______
Learning and Remembering
• Retrieving information from LTM
Endel Tulving
» Encoding specificity
◊ When is recall better than recognition?
– When recall is cued.
◊ What makes a good cue?
– Encoding Specificity Hypothesis.
A cue will be an effective aid to retrieval if it is stored as part of the
original memory.
◊ An empirical example (Goddan & Baddeley, 1975).
– Participants are assigned to one of four conditions and were presented
with a list of words.
Encoding: Underwater or on land
Retrieval: Underwater or on land
Learning and Remembering
• Retrieving information from LTM
» Encoding specificity
◊ Context-dependent memory.
– The context/ environment is stored as part of memories
Endel Tulving
Learning and Remembering
• Amnesia and implicit memory
» Amnesia - loss of memory or memory ability due to brain
injury or disease.
◊ Retrograde amnesia - loss of memory for events occurring before injury
◊ Anterograde amnesia - inability to form new memory for events
occurring after injury
Learning and Remembering
• Amnesia and implicit memory
» Anterograde amnesia
Video clip: The man with a 30 sec memory
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WmzU47i2xgw&feature=related
Learning and Remembering
• Amnesia and implicit memory
» Anterograde amnesia
◊ H.M.
» Tools and objects, revisited
» Role of the hippocampus
» Dissociation of declarative and procedural memory
◊ Korsakoff’s syndrome
Learning and Remembering
•
Amnesia and implicit memory
»
Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)
◊
◊
Amnesic patients and institutionalized controls study a list of
words.
Three memory tests
1. Free Recall
2. Yes/No recognition
3. Word stem completion:
tab____?
gar____?
Learning and Remembering
•
Amnesia and implicit memory
»
Warrington & Weiskrantz (1970)
Learning and Remembering
•
Amnesia and implicit memory
»
Repitition priming - a previous encounter with information facilitated
later performance on the same information.
◊
◊
◊
Does not require conscious recognition
Is independent of level of processing
Jacoby & Dallas (1981)
– Three orienting tasks
1. Physical (e.g., contains an ‘L’ ?)
2. Rhyme (e. g., rhymes with train?)
3. Semantic (e. g., is it the center of the nervous system?)
– Two memory tests
1. Yes/No recognition
2. (Masked) perceptual identification
Learning and Remembering
•
Amnesia and implicit memory
»
Repitition priming - a previous encounter with information facilitated
later performance on the same information.
◊
Jacoby & Dallas (1981)