Download FINANCIAL MARKETS AND INSTITIUTIONS: A Modern Perspective

Chapter Ten
Derivative Securities
Markets
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Derivatives
• A derivative security is an agreement between two
parties to exchange a standard quantity of an asset at a
predetermined price at a specific date in the future
• Derivative securities markets are the markets in which
derivative securities trade
• Derivatives involve the buying and selling (i.e., the
transfer of) risk, which results in a positive impact on the
economic system
• Derivatives are used for hedging and for speculation
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Derivatives
• The first wave of modern derivatives were foreign
currency futures introduced by the International
Monetary Market (IMM) following the Smithsonian
Agreements of 1971 and 1973
• The second wave of modern derivatives were interest
rate futures introduced by the Chicago Board of Trade
(CBT) after the Fed started to target nonborrowed
reserves in the late 1970s
• The third wave of modern derivatives occurred in the
1990s with the advent of credit derivatives
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Forwards and Futures
• A spot contract is an agreement to transact
involving the immediate exchange of assets and
funds
• A forward contract is a nonstandardized
agreement to transact involving the future
exchange of a set amount of assets at a set price
• A futures contract is a standardized exchange
traded agreement to transact involving the future
exchange of a set amount of assets for a price that
is settled daily
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Futures Markets
• Futures contracts are usually traded on organized
exchanges
• Exchanges indemnify counterparties against credit (i.e.,
default) risk
• Futures are market to market daily
– marked to market describes the prices on outstanding futures
contracts that are adjusted each day to reflect current futures
market conditions
• The five major U.S. exchanges are the CBOT, CME,
NYFE, MACE, and KCBOT
• The principal regulator of futures markets is the
Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC)
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Futures Markets
• Futures contract trading occurs in trading “pits” using
an open-outcry auction among exchange members
– floor brokers place trades for the public
– professional traders trade for their own accounts
– position traders take a position in the futures market based
on their expectations about the future direction of the prices
of the underlying assets
– day traders take a position within a day and liquidate it
before day’s end
– scalpers take positions for very short periods of time,
sometimes only minutes, in an attempt to profit from active
trading
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Futures Contract Terms
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•
•
Trading unit
Deliverable grades
Tick size
Price quote
Contract months
Last trading day
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•
•
•
•
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Last delivery day
Delivery method
Trading hours
Ticker symbols
Daily price limit
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Futures Contracts
• A long position is the purchase of a futures
contract
• A short position is the sale of a futures contract
• A clearinghouse is the unit that oversees trading
on the exchange and guarantees all trades made
by the exchange
• Open interest is the total number of the futures,
put options, or call options outstanding at the
beginning of the day
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Futures Contracts
• An initial margin is a deposit required on futures trades
to ensure that the terms of the contracts will be met
• The maintenance margin is the margin a futures trader
must maintain once a futures position is taken
– if losses occur such that margin account funds fall below the
maintenance margin, the customer is required to deposit additional
funds in the margin account
• Futures trades are leveraged investments as traders post
and maintain only a small portion of the value of their
futures position and “borrow” the rest from brokers
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Options
• An option is a contract that gives the holder the right, but
not the obligation, to buy or sell the underlying asset at a
specified price within a specified period of time
• A call option is an option that gives the purchaser the
right, but not the obligation, to buy the underlying
security from the writer of the option at a specified
exercise price on (or up to) a specified date
• A put option is an option that gives the purchaser the
right, but not the obligation, to sell the underlying security
to the writer of the option at a specified exercise price on
(or up to) a specified date
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Payoff Functions
Options
for Call Options
Payoff
profit
Payoff function
for buyer
C
0
Stock Price
at expiration
X
-C
Payoff
loss
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Payoff function
for writer
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Payoff Functions
Options
for Put Options
Payoff
profit
Payoff function
for buyer
P
0
X
Stock Price
at expiration
-P
Payoff
loss
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Payoff function
for writer
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Options
• The Black-Scholes option pricing model (the model most
commonly used to price and value options) is a function of
–
–
–
–
–
the spot price of the underlying asset
the exercise price on the option
the option’s exercise date
the price volatility of the underlying asset
the risk-free rate of interest
• The intrinsic value of an option is the difference between an
option’s exercise price and the underlying asset price
– the intrinsic value of a call option = max{S – X, 0}
– the intrinsic value of a put option = max{X – S, 0}
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Please insert Figure 10-8 here.
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Option Markets
• The Chicago Board of Options Exchange (CBOE)
opened in 1973 as the first exchange devoted solely to the
trading of stock options
• Options on futures contracts began trading in 1982
• An American option can be exercised at any time before
(and on) the expiration date
• A European option can be exercised only on the
expiration date
• The trading process for options is similar to that for
futures contracts
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Options
• The underlying asset on a stock option is the stock of a
publicly traded company
• The underlying asset on a stock index option is the value of a
major stock market index (e.g., DJIA or S&P 500)
• The underlying asset on a futures option is a futures contract
• Credit swaps
– the value of a credit spread call option increases as the default
(risk) premium or yield spread on a specified benchmark bond of
the borrower increases above some exercise spread
– a digital default option pays a stated amount in the event of a
loan default
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Options
• The primary regulator of futures markets is the
Commodity Futures Trading Commission
(CFTC)
• The Securities Exchange Commission (SEC) is
the primary regulator of stock options and stock
index options
• The CFTC is the regulator of options on futures
contracts
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Swaps
• A swap is an agreement between two parties to exchange assets
or a series of cash flows for a specific period of time at a
specified interval
• An interest rate swap is an exchange of fixed-interest
payments for floating-interest payments by two counterparties
– the swap buyer makes the fixed-rate payments
– the swap seller makes the floating-rate payments
– the principal amount involved in a swap is called the notional
principal
• A currency swap is a swap used to hedge against exchange
rate risk from mismatched currencies on assets and liabilities
• Credit swaps allow financial institutions to hedge credit risk
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Swap Markets
• Swaps are not standardized contracts
• Swap dealers (usually financial institutions) keep
markets liquid by matching counterparties or by
taking positions themselves
• The International Swaps and Derivatives
Association (ISDA) is a 815 member association
among 56 countries that sets codes of standards
for swap documentation
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Caps, Floors, and Collars
• Financial institutions use options on interest rates
to hedge interest rate risk
– a cap is a call option on interest rates, often with
multiple exercise dates
– a floor is a put option on interest rates, often with
multiple exercise dates
– a collar is a position taken simultaneously in a cap and
a floor (usually buying a cap and selling a floor)
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International Derivative Markets
• The U.S. dominates the global derivative
securities markets
– North America accounted for $57.94 trillion of the
$96.67 trillion contracts outstanding on organized
exchanges in 2007
• The euro and European exchanges are expanding
– Europe accounted for $32.28 trillion of the $96.67
trillion contracts outstanding on organized exchanges
in 2007
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Black-Sholes Call Option Model
C  N (d1 ) S  E (e
 rT
) N (d 2 )
ln( S / E )  (r   2 / 2)T
d1 
 T
d 2  d1  T
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