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生物多樣性與保育策略
Biodiversity and
Conservation Strategies
鄭先祐(Ayo)
國立 臺南大學 環境與生態學院
生態科學與技術學系 教授
生物多樣性保育的原則與策略
• 第一節 全球生物多樣性
• 第二節 生態保育的策略
目錄
2
Components of Biodiversity
1. Genetic diversity (基因多樣性)
2. Population-level diversity (族群的多樣性)
– Plasticity (可塑性)
3. Human cultural diversity (人類文化的多樣性)
– 6,526 distinct spoken languages, with the
greatest diversity concentrated in tropical
regions. (Fig. 2.1)
4. Diversity of species (物種的多樣性)
3
Fig. 2.1 Linguistic diversity across the world.
4
5
Essay 2.1 Hierachical indicators for
monitoring changes in biodiversity
Table A. Hierarchical indicators for
monitoring biodiversity
• Genetic (基因)
• Population-species (族群)
• Community-ecosystem
(群落-生態體系)
Fig A. compositional, structural,
and functional attributes of
biodiversity at four levels of
organization.
• Composition (組成)
• Structure (構造)
• Function (功能)
• Landscape (地景)
6
功能
7
How many species
• 現生物種約有175萬種，以及30萬種化石物種
– Table 2.1 Number of living species in major phyla.
• 植物類約有29萬種(50-55%) ，估計有53萬種。
• 真菌類約有8萬種(5%)，估計有150萬種。
• 動物類約有130萬種(<11%)，估計至少有1,154
萬種。(Table 2.1)
8
Table 2.1
Number of
Living
species in
Major phyla
9
表4.1 地球自然生物已命名的和估計現有的(含未命名)
物種數量。按主要界別(phyla)。
種類
已知命名
估計現有
命名百分率
病毒類
5,000
500,000
細菌類
4,760
1,000,000
0.5%
原生界
80,000
500,000
16%
真菌界
80,000
1,500,000
5%
植物界
287,655
530,000
54%
動物界
1,296,539
11,540,000
11%
總計
1,753,954
15,570,000
11%
1%
※數據整理摘取自：Groom, Meffe, and Carroll (2006), p.33,
Table 2.1。
10
Diversity of higher taxa
• Five kingdoms (五個界)
• Animalia, Plantae, Fungi, Protista, and
Monera (prokaryotes)
• Monera: Archaea and bacteria (Fig. 2.2)
11
12
恐龍時代
脊椎動物
無脊椎
哺乳類時代
Fig. 10.20 演化時鐘。整
個地球的歷史濃縮為12
小時。從半夜零點至正
中午12點。
參考 Table 10.1
第一個細胞生命
真核
原核生命的時期
13
Five Kingdoms (五個生物界)
真菌界
植物界
Fig. 11.1 生物的五
個生物界。
參考 Table 11.1
原生生物界
原核生物界
14
Biome diversity, eco-regions Diversity
– Fig. 2.8 species richness (A) and endemism (B) of
mammals, birds, amphibians, and reptiles is
greatest in tropical moist forests, and lowest in
deserts.
–α-richness refers to the number of species found
in a small, homogeneous area.
–β-richness refer to the rate of change in species
composition across habitats or among
communities.
–γ-richness refers to changes across larger
landscape gradients.
15
Fig. 2.4 Biomes and climate.
16
地質年代
• Species richness over geological time
– Fig 2.5 Diversity of marine families from
Cambrian to the present,
– Fig. 2.6 Terrestrial plant species richness.
– Fig. 2.7 Extinctions of families through
geological time.
17
Table 2.2 Earth’s geological history
18
Table 2.2 Earth’s Geological history
19
Diversity of marine families,
with five major mass extinction
events
20
21
The indo-west Pacific is a marine diversity
hotspot.
22
23
The importance of biodiversity
• Table 2.4 Examples of ecosystem
services
– Supporting services (支持的服務)
– Provisioning services (生活的服務)
– Regulating services (調節的服務)
– Cultural services (文化的服務)
24
The future of biodiversity studies
• The incomplete state of our knowledge of
the identities, taxonomic relationships, and
distributions of the vast majority of the
world’s organisms means that the primary
work of cataloging biodiversity is yet to be
done.
• Today relatively few scientists are being
trained as taxonomists.
• Therefore, increasing the cadre of
competent taxonomists, particularly in
tropical nations, is an important goal.
25
E. O. Wilson(1992)’s strategy
• A rapid assessment program (RAP) that would
investigate within a few years.
• The next stage would be to establish research
station in areas believed to major hotspots of
diversity.
• The third stage, with a time frame of 50 years,
would combine the inventories from RAP and the
intensive studies at a small number of research
stations with monographic studies of many groups
of organisms to provide a more complete picture of
global biodiversity and its distribution.
26
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)
千禧 生態體系 評估
• A large coalition of international development and
conservation organizations, governments, and
scientists has come together to assess the status of
Earth’s ecosystems, the goods and services they
provide, and the likely effects of potential pathways
of human economic development on the future
provisioning of these services and human well-being
(Fig. 2.22)
• The MA focuses both globally, and on subglobal
regions of particular concern due to the difficulty of
human existence or potential for serious declines in
human welfare in these regions.
27
Millennium Ecosystem assessment
千禧 生態體系 評估 (MA)
• (Fig. 2.22)
• Biodiversity (生物多樣性) → Ecosystem
services → human well-being
• Human well-being (人類的幸福)
– Security (安全)
– Basic material for a good life (好生活的基本物質)
– Health (健康)
– Good social relations (好的社會關係)
28
Fig. 2.22
Guiding
framework for
the
Millennium
Ecosystem
Assessment.
29
30
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)
31
Questions for discussion
1
• The history of life has been punctuated by five
episodes during which extinction rates were
very high.
• If extinction is a normal process, and if life has
rediversified after each mass extinction, why
should we be worried about the prospects of
high extinction rates during this century?
• How does the current extinction spasm differ
from previous ones?
32
Questions for discussion
2
• Given that millions of species are yet to be described
and named, how should the limited human and
financial resources available for taxonomic research
be allocated?
• Should efforts be directed toward areas threatened
with habitat destruction so that species can be
collected before they are eliminated?
• Should major efforts be directed to obtain complete
“all taxa” surveys of selected areas?
• How and by whom should these decisions be made?
33
生態保育的策略
鄭先祐
生態主張者：Ayo 工作室
傳統的方法 (範例)
Heath hem (Tympanuchus cupido cupido)
• 曾分布於New England 至Virginia State
• 1876，只存在於 Martha's Vineyard。
• 1900，只剩不到100隻。
• 1907，設立refuge(保護區)。
• 1916，族群數目增加到800隻。但當年火災，冬天又
有強大的掠食壓力，族群數目又下降到100隻至150隻。
• 1920，族群數目再上升至200隻。但又遭疾病侵襲，
又再下降到100隻以下。
• 1932，滅絕。
35
四項不確定因素
• (1) demographic stochasticity
• (2) environmental stochasticity
• (3) natural catastrophes
• (4) genetic stochasticity
36
研訂 minimum population size
• (1) Experiments
• (2) Biogeographic patterns
• (3) Theoretical models
• (4) Simulation models
• (5) Genetic considerations
37
Genetic considerations
小族群容易滅絕的原因
• (1) inbreeding 造成homozygosity 上升。
• (2) Genetic drift
• (3) 環境不斷變動。
38
生物地理學(Biogeography)
生物隨著時間於空間上的分布情形之研究。
• 植物地理學(Plant geography)
• 動物地理學(Zoogeography)
• 島嶼生物地理學(Island Biogeography)
39
生物地理學的發展史
• 1820 – 1940：主要為描述性的生物地理學。
• 1940年以後：Cain(1944)加入詮釋性的生
物地理之研究，可分為：歷史生物地理學
(Historical biogeography)與生態生物地理
學(Ecological biogeography)。
• 1961年研討會：兩種遷移法：(1)跨越水域，
(2)經由暫時性的陸橋。
40
1960年代的島嶼生物地理學
原則：
• (1) 愈大愈好。
• (2)不要切割。
• (3)切割後，每塊間的距離愈近愈好。
• (4)周長/面積，要愈小愈好。
41
Fig. 10. Schematic
illustration of some
principles for the
design of nature
reserves.
42
Fig.5a. The
Galapagos
Islands
43
Fig. 5b. Number of land-plant species on the
Galapagos islands in relation to the area of the
island. S= 28.6A 0.32
44
Fig. 6. Species-area curve for the amphibians
and reptiles of the West Indies. S= 3.3A 0.30
45
Fig. 9. Island biogeography applied to mountaintops.
(b) Species-area relationship for the resident boreal
birds of the mountaintops in the Great Basin.
46
Fig. 9. Island biogeography applied to mountaintops.
(c) Species-area relationship for the boreal mammal
species.
47
Fig. 7. Equilibrium model of a biota of
a single island.
48
Fig. 8 Equilibrium models of biotas of several
islands of varying distances from the principal
source area and of varying size.
49
Fig. 10 Colonization curves of four small mangroves
islands in the lower Florida Keys, whose entire faunas,
consisting almost solely of arthropods, were
exterminated by methyl bromide fumigation.
50
1960-1980：相關學科的發展
• (1) 大陸飄移。
• (2) 分子生物技術於系統分類學的應用。
• (3) MacArthur and Wilson (1963, 1967)：
島嶼生物地理學的平衡理論。
• (4) Vicariance 生物地理學。
1980年以後，the study of biodiversity。
51
Fig. 11. Baja California
52
表1. Cortez 海域島嶼間生物地理之比較。
項 目
陸生
植物
50km2 之海洋島嶼所含
之平均數
105
陸橋性島嶼比海洋性島嶼
含有更多的種類？
No
島嶼上所含之種類比大陸
塊上還少嗎？
Holocene才出現之海洋
性島嶼所含的種類數比老
生島嶼還少嗎？
距大陸愈遠，種類數愈少
嗎？陸橋性島嶼
海洋性島嶼
特有性：陸橋性島嶼
海洋性島嶼
沿岸魚
類
陸棲鳥
類
陸棲
爬蟲
蜥蜴
陸棲哺
乳
13
9.3
3.5
1.3
No
No
Yes
Yes
Very
Yes
No
有一點
Yes
Yes
Very
Yes
No
No
No
No
No
有一點
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
No
Yes
有一點
Yes
0
2
0
0
0
0
5
35
0
47
16
69
53
Fig. 13. 島嶼生物地理學(修改自Case & Code,
1987)
54
當代的切割理論與生物保育策略
「一大」或是「多小」？
• (1) maximizes the mean size of reserves
• (2) maximizes the number of reserves
55
Fig. 4. The distribution of
areas of nature reserves in
the world.
56
Fig. 14. Diagram of experimental design. Plots with
solid edges represent enclosures preventing access
by sheep. Broken lines mark delineated plots in the
grazed area.
57
表2. 於不同大小面積之隔離區與牧養區內，顯花植物的
種類數之比較。
隔離區
牧養區
小型 中型 大型 小型
項目
N
中型 大型
32
8
2
16
4
1
29
26
20
26
16
15
最多/各區
15
15
15
13
12
(15)
最少/各區
3
8
15
5
8
(15)
總數
全區
34種
26種
58
表3. 各型樣區的種類數目之變化。
項 目
種類1985
小型
中型
大型
全部
29
30
33
26
27
29
20
20
25
34
33
40
1985-1986
1986-1987
新增種類
4
2
5
3
3
2
5
1
1985-1986
1986-1987
5
5
6
5
3
7
4
6
1986
1987
遺失種類
59
海洋性島嶼
離岸200公里以上
Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic
archipelagos.
a. Extant native birds of the Hawaiian islands
b. Galapagos land birds
c. Galapagos Darwin's finches
d. Galapagos ferns.
60
Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for海洋性島嶼
oceanic
archipelagos.
e. Galapagos insects
離岸200公里以上
f. Galapagos flowering plants
g. Caribbean bats.
h. Facroes islands ground beetles.
61
海洋性島嶼
離岸200公里以上
Fig. 16. Cumulative species-area curves for oceanic
archipelagos.
g. Caribbean bats.
h. Facroes islands ground beetles.
i.. Canary Islands birds
j. Canary island ground beetles.
62
沿岸島嶼
離岸100KM以內
Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshores
archipelagos.
a. Seabirds on islands off of Scotland.
b. Extant marsupials on islands in the Bass Straits.
c. Reptiles on islands in the Bass Straits.
d. Sand dune mammals on islands in the Bass Straits.
63
沿岸島嶼
離岸100KM以內
Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for nearshore
archipelagos.
e. Birds of the California Channel islands.
f. Reptiles and amphibians of the California Channel
islands.
g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.
h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.
64
沿岸島嶼
離岸100KM以內
Fig. 17. Cumulative species-area curves for
nearshores archipelagos.
g. Plants of the islands in the Gulf of California.
h. Mammals of the islands in the Gulf of California.
i. Reptiles and amphibians of the islands in the Gulf of
California.
65
陸域隔離區
Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial
habitat isolates.
a. Mammals of East African national parks.
b. Birds of East African national parks.
c. Mountaintop small mammals.
d. Mountaintop plants.
66
陸域隔離區
Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial
habitat isolates.
e. Mountaintop birds
f. Birds in New Jersey woodlots
g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.
h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.
67
陸域隔離區
Fig. 18. Cumulative species-area curves for terrestrial
habitat isolates.
g. Mammals of Australian wheatbelt reserves.
h. Lizards of Australian wheatbelt reserves.
i. Mammals of U.S. national parks.
68
Fig. 19 Effect of anthropogenic extinctions on cumulative
species-area curves for two island groups.
a. Extant native birds of the Hawaiian islands
b. Extant and fossil birds of the Hawaiian islands.
c. Marsupials on island in the Bass Strait.
d. Marsupials on island in the Bass Strait.
69
切割棲息地後，所含的生物種類數反而增加，可能
的原因：
• 1. Habitat diversity
• 2. Population dynamics.
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Priority effects
Multiple stable equilibria
Edge effects
Disturbance
Species pool and dispersal ability.
Colonization
Evolutionary effects.
Extinctions.
• 3. Historical effects.
70
•Supplements
Character Displacement
• 相近的物種，於重疊分布的區域，其間的差
異會因為競爭而擴大。
• 這是否普遍存在？
71
Fig. 1 The considerable difference in beak
morphology between these three species of
Darwin's finches, Geospiza, which coexist on many
Galapagos islands, has been the subject of much
debate concerning its cause.
72
Fig. 2 The beak morphology of Geospiza
conirostris shows significant variation on
different species on different islands.
73
Fig. 3. The average beak depths of four species of
Darwin's finches on three islands where they coexist
show considerable variation from island to islands, even
though the same set of possible competition occurs on
each island.
74
問題與討論
• Ayo 台南 NUTN 站
http://myweb.nutn.edu.tw/~hycheng/
75