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Oceanic Nekton
Composition of the Oceanic Nekton
Phylum: Chordata
• Notochord and
dorsal nerve cord
• Gill slits, and a
post-anal tail
• Tunicates (sea
squirts)
Class: Agnatha
• Jawless fish
• Lampreys and hagfish
• Represent ancestors of bony fish and
sharks
Class: Chondrichthyes
• Skeleton made of cartilage – adaptation to be
less buoyant
• Gill slits
• Placoid scales (origins same as teeth)
• Internal Fertilization – male clasper: lay eggs,
or live young
• Sense electric, chemical, magnetic cues
Sharks & Rays
Subclass:
Elasmobranchii
Bottom dwellers
(benthic)
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Skates, rays, and some sharks
Flattening of the body and expanded fins
Catch fish
Dig clams and worms from the sediment
Manta Rays are plankton feeders
Many lay eggs
May have a large, sharp, defensive spine
on the tail
Subclass: Elasmobranchii
Pelagic (open water) sharks
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Streamlined torpedo-shaped bodies
1 or 2 dorsal fins
Pair of large pectoral fins
Pair of pelvic fins
Single ventral anal fin
Heterocercal caudal fin (upper lobe elongated)
Most predators
• Whale & basking shark are filter
feeders
Slow to mature with low reproductive
rates
Some lay eggs others have live birth
Shark Attacks
More people die from pigs each year in the
U.S. than sharks
Result because of mistaken identity
We put out sounds or odors like normal prey
• Possession of hooked or speared fish
thrashing in the water
• Splashing creates low frequency vibrations
that imitate the thrashing of a wounded
animal
How to Avoid a Shark Attack
• Always swim in a group
• Don’t wander too far from shore
• Avoid the water at night, dawn, or
dusk
• Don’t enter the water if bleeding
• Don’t wear shiny jewelry
• Don’t go into waters containing
sewage
• Avoid water being fished and
those with lots of bait fishes
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Don’t enter the water if sharks are present
Don’t splash a lot
Use care near sandbars or steep drop-offs
Avoid an uneven tan and brightly colored clothing
Don’t relax just because porpoises are nearby
Don’t try to touch a shark if you see one
If attacked: the general is “Do whatever it takes to
get away!”
Types of Shark Attacks
Provoked – caused by humans touching sharks
Unprovoked – sharks make the first contact, 3 forms
1. Hit-and-run – near beaches, mistake the
movements of humans for fish; legs and feet are
often bitten; injuries minor and deaths rarely
2. Sneak – deeper water; victim doesn’t see the
shark before the attack; serious injury or death,
especially if shark continues to attack
3. Bump-and-bite – shark circles and bumps the
victim with its head or body before biting; cause
serious injury or death
Sharks Under Attack
• Humans kill 20-30 million sharks per year
through commercial and sport fishing
Class: Osteichthyes – Bony fish
• Skeleton made of bone
• Gills protected by an operculum
• Expend energy to separate salt from water
to prevent dehydration
• Swim bladder in most
• Most reproduce externally
• Lateral lines – detect water motion and
vibrations
Bony Fish
Fin Design – Diversity of Fish
Wrasses - Use pectoral fins as oars
• Provides slow but precise motion
Seahorses & pipefish
• Limited motility to maintain camouflage
Triggerfish – undulate dorsal and anal fins
• Great control and ability to sink vertically or backward into
reef crevices
Eels – dorsal, anal & tail fins are fused
• Swim like snakes
Tuna – crescent-shaped tail
• Highly streamlined
Flying Fish – elongated pectoral fins like wings
Remoras – modified dorsal fin serves as a suction device
• Attach to sharks, turtles, whales for a free ride
• Detach to feed on scraps
Fishes
• Caudal fin – provides
thrust, and control the
fishes direction
• Pectorals – act mostly as
rudders and hydroplanes to
control yaw and pitch.
Also act as very important
brakes causing drag
• Pelvic fins – mostly
controls pitch
• Dorsal/anal – control roll
Fins
• Fusiform – swiftest of all
fish – torpedo shape
• Depressed – flatteneddorso ventrally – use
camouflage instead of
speed for survival
• Compressed – flattened –
side to side – gives fish
great agility for movement
and sudden bursts of speed
• Attenuated - Eel-like –
allows it to wiggle into
small crevices where it
hunts prey
Body Shapes
Body Shapes
Flatfish
• Begin life as ordinary fish
• One eye migrates over the top of the head to
the other side
• Many also have ability to alter their colors
to blend in
Behavior and Special Body Features
• Bioluminescence – built in light system
• Barbels – look like whiskers but are not
hairs. Used for feeling and tasting
• Anglerfishes – fishing lure – to attract prey
• Strange mouths – many animals mouths
allow them to feed on foods others cannot
catch or eat
• Electricity – produced by special body
organs
Importance of
Color
• Camouflage – blend in with surroundings
• Disruptive Coloration – spots and stripes break up the
body shape and conceal them against backgrounds
• False Eye Spots – May hide vulnerable parts of an
animal’s body
• Counter shading – dark backs blend in with the
darkness of the deep ocean and light bellies make it
hard for a predator to see them against
bright sunlit surface waters.
Importance of Color
• Advertising coloration – attracts attention
and advertises a special service
• Warning – Some animals are so well
protected with spines, poisons, and armor
that their coloration is a warning for other
species to stay away
Cleaning behavior
Specialized form of predation where small fish or
shrimps remove various ectoparasites from other
larger fish
Occurs on all reefs
Cleaning stations – advertise their presence through
bright, contrasting colors
• Fish to be cleaned remain motionless as the
cleaner moves over its body removing the
parasites
• May even enter the mouth and gill chambers of
fish
• Fish may line up at these stations
Reptiles
Turtles
Sea snakes
Marine Iguanas
• Not pelagic
Saltwater crocodiles
• Not pelagic
Class: Reptilia
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Cold-blooded
Breathe with lungs
Scales
Lay internally fertilized eggs
Order: Squamata – sea snakes and
lizards
Snakes
• 50 species confined to tropical Pacific and Indian
Oceans
• Distant relatives of cobras and are highly
venomous
• Their tail is flattened and serves as an oar
Iguanas
• 1 species
• Confined to Galapagos Islands
• herbivorous
Iguanas
Order: Crocodila
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Alligators, crocodiles, and caimans
Semi aquatic
Carnivorous
Seldom grow beyond 6 meters
Inhabit mangrove swamps and seacoasts
Been known to attack people
Crocodiles
Alligators
Order: Chelonia – Sea Turtles
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7 species
Limbs are modified as flippers
Shells smooth, plated, and lightly built
Inhabit warm seas
Some herbivorous others predaceous
Turtle skin is partially covered with scales
Sea Turtles
Turtles are the only reptiles with a
shell
Their extremities are always outside their
shell. The backbone of the turtle is fused to
their top shell as are their ribs.
Turtles
• The domed top of the turtle shell is called
the carapace
• The bottom part is called the plastron.
• The number and arrangement of bony
plates, on the carapace and plastron, can be
used to determine each species.
Turtles may have ectoparasites on
their shell and skin.
• do not harm the turtle, they are just hitching
a ride
• Barnacles often grow on turtle shells.
• Crabs may be found hanging onto skin folds
of marine turtles, especially around the tail.
Tagging Turtles
• Most species will not reproduce until they are 15-50 years
old.
• Male and female couples are seen mating in the ocean near
beaches.
• Male marine turtles have longer tails than the females
• Females come ashore at night to build nest and lay eggs
• A body pit is dug above the high tide line by the nesting
female
• About 100 eggs are laid
• Process is repeated 3 to 7 times at two-week intervals
• When nesting is finished they mate and sperm can be
stored for 2 or 3 years
• Eggs incubate for about 2 months
• get out of their egg case they use an "egg tooth" which is
on the tip of their mouth.
• Many are eaten by gulls
• Very few survive to become reproducing adults
All Marine Turtles are
Endangered
• Loss of nesting habitat
• Nesting females are poached
Nests are dug up and eggs taken
• Humans and wild animals
Caught and drowned in shrimp trawler nets
• Turtle exclusion device
Fibropapilloma
• Tumorous tissue growth
• More common in females
• Viruses – retro and herpes viruses
Effects
• Slower growth, reproduction? Can block
gut, eyes and lead to death
• Reduced immunity
Vector
• Saddle wrasses known to carry virus and
clean turtles
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Case Study: Green Sea Turtle
Green-colored fat tissue
Chelonia mydas
Hatchlings weigh 1 oz; have carapace 2 in
Subadults avg 200-350lbs; with carapace at least
2 1/2 ft long
Adults – grow 4 ft and weigh up to 400lbs;
carapace mottled dark brown on
top and creamy white below
Carapace often covered in green algal
Males develop a single mating claw on
the trailing edge of their fore flippers
Distribution and Range
• Found throughout the world’s oceans
Feeding
• Green body fat because of the green algae
they eat
• Primarily herbivorous
• Juveniles are omnivorous feeding on
plankton – jellyfish and fish eggs
Reproduction
• Reach sexual maturity at 25 sometimes taking up
to 50 yrs
• Adults migrate from foraging grounds to nesting
grounds
• Males appear to migrate every year
• Females migrate every 2-4 years
• Mating starts in march
• Nesting occurs late April through September with
a peak in June and July
• Each female comes ashore as many as 5
times at 11 to 18 day intervals
• Dig a broad pit with fore flippers and an egg
chamber with rear flippers
• Deposit clutch of 100-120 ping pong ball
sized eggs
• Gently cover the nest by flinging dirt over it
with flippers
• T of the eggs during incubation determines
the gender: lower produces males
• Hatching occurs at night after about 60 days
• Hatchlings work as a group to dig to the
surface
• Head to the ocean attracted to the light
reflected off the ocean
• Seabirds, crabs and fish are often waiting
nearby to grab an easy meal
• Live up to 80 years
Predators
• Only natural predator = tiger sharks
• Hatchlings = fish, crabs, birds, or perhaps
cats or dogs
Humans are the main non-natural predators
• Eggs, meat, oil, and shell
Other Threats
• Entanglement in fishing gear and death from
bycatch
• US has reduced sea turtles deaths by requiring
trawlers to use turtle excluder devices
Plastics floating in ocean
• Block the digestive system and are toxic
Cigarette butts cannot digest filters which contain
toxic ingredients
Noise, lights and beach obstructions disrupt nesting
areas
• 50% of green turtles in Hawaii have
fibropapilloma
• Tumors the size of grapefruit grow over the
eyes, mouth, neck or flippers
• Tumors are not deadly but block the sight,
breathing, or feeding activities
Class: Aves - birds
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Wings
Skin modified into Feathers (flight & insulation)
Endothermic (warm-blooded)
Bones hollow for flight
Reduction of jaws, lack of teeth, beak (lighten
skull)
• 4 chambered heart
• Must return to land to raise young
Sea Bird Fun
Sea Birds vs Land Birds
Most black, white, brown, or mixtures
• Possibly because melanin strengthens feathers
Usually no plumage difference between the sexes or
age
Waterproof plumage and webbed feet
Specialized salt elimination glands either associated
with eyes or nostrils
Some try to catch rain drops to supplement drinking
saltwater
Sea Birds
Sea Birds
• Not technically nektonic since they fly over
the open ocean or swim on the surface
• Do feed in the upper layers and some may
dive to depths near 100m to feed
• Flightless penguins of the Southern
Hemisphere
How to Identify
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Size
Shape and length of wings and tail
Color of soft parts (legs webbing and bill)
Flight patterns –gliding, soaring, flapping,
direct or erratic
• Height above water
• Landing on water
Sea bird feeding
All are predators
Cormorants, puffins, and penguins pursue their prey
underwater
• Powerful strokes of their webbed feet
• May flap wings also
Pelicans, ospreys, kingfisher, and terns spot their
prey from the air and drop into the water to catch
Skimmers fly along the surface with their lower beak
trailing in the water
Shorebirds concentrate on invertebrates inhabiting
the rocks and sand beaches
Sea Birds of the World
• Order: Procellariiformes (albatross,
shearwaters, petrels, storm-petrels)
• Order Pelecaniformes (tropicbirds, boobies,
frigatebirds)
• Order Charadriiformes (shorebirds, jaegers,
gulls, terns, noddies)
• Order Sphenisciformes (penguins)
Penguins
Order: Sphenisciformes - Penguins
• 16 species restricted to cold waters of the
S. Hemisphere
Lost the power of flight – “fly” by flapping
wings underwater
• Only bird that doesn’t have hollow bones
Feathers are modified to provide insulation
• Layer of fat under the skin
Feed on fish, squid, and shrimp
Penguin
Good Parents
• Males and females form a pair
bond and then work together
caring for the chicks
Most nest in huge rookeries
Most species only raise one chick per year and
no species raises more than 2
Emperor and king penguins do not build nests
of any kind
• Keep the egg and chick on their feet for
warmth
Penguin Live
Penguin Diet
Penguin Feathers
Penguin Swimming
Penguin Wing
Pelicans
• 2 species – both have beaks modified as
expansible pouches
• White pelican – swim on surface and dip
into the water
• Brown pelican – watch for fish while
flying
Pelican
Cormorants
• Dive from the surface and swim underwater
• Perch with wings half open to dry
Ospreys
• Soles of feet are equipped with sharp, spiny
projections
• Carries the fish with head forward making it
aerodynamic
Osprey
Threats to Seabirds
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Incidental mortality in long-line fisheries
Entanglement in marine debris
Ingestion of plastics
Oil spills
Accumulation of toxins
Introduced predators/habitat destruction
Natural – predators, parasites and diseases,
oceanic events, and biotoxins
Heron
Class: Mammalia
• Body covered with hair
• Viviparous – young are nourished during
development in the uterus
• Milk secreted by the mammary glands
• Lungs
• Endothermic (warm-blooded)
Mammals
Key Deer
Unique to several islands in the lower
Florida Keys
National Key Deer Refuge
• National Key Deer Refuge
Description
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Smaller than other white tails
Males weigh about 80 lbs
Females average 64 lbs
Coats vary from a reddish-brown to nearly
gray
• Black facial mask of the fawn intensifies in
adults especially in males
• 1970’s – deer population increased to 350400 deer
• 1980 – declined to 250-300
80% of deaths are due to road kills
• Dog kills, harassment, poaching, drowning,
extreme drought and old age
Habitat
• Most found on Big Pine Key because of its
size and high quality habitat
• Must have fresh water in their habitat every
month of the year
Future
Greatest threats
• Alterations of their habitat as a result of
development and interaction with people
Habitat protection is the only true solution
Two types of Whales
Order: Cetacea – whales
Suborder: Odontoceti (toothed whales)
• Porpoises and dolphins, narwhal, beluga whales,
killer whales, and sperm whales
• Feed mainly on fish and squid
• Dolphins have conical teeth and pronounced beak
• Porpoise have spatulate teeth and no beak
• Remarkable intelligence
• Navigate by echolocation
Toothed Whales
Dolphins and
Driftnets
Gill Net – wall of netting meshes form a noose
around the heads and bodies of fish
• Target species – fish that are intentionally caught
• Bycatch – marine life accidentally caught
1989 NOAA sampled 4% of a Japanese ships in
north Pacific
• 3 million squid (target species)
• 58,100 blue sharks, 1,510,255 various species of
fish, 9,117 birds, 52 fur seals, 22 sea turtles, 141
porpoises, and 914 dolphins
Dolphins
Dolphin Defense
• Marine Mammal Protection Act 1972
places limits on the # of dolphins that can
be taken as bycatch
1990 intense letter-writing campaign
• 3 major U.S. tuna companies agreed to no
longer purchase tuna caught in purse seine
nets
Echolocation
• Dolphin can determine the difference between a
kernel of corn and a ball bearing from 49 feet
• High frequency sound transmitted over long
distances
• Single echo tells the animal the shape, size,
density, and location of an object
• Sound is produced in air sacs attached to the
respiratory tract
• Directed through fatty deposits in their melons.
• Feels or hears the click echo in its jawbone
• The information is passed to the middle ear and
then the brain for processing
Echolocation
Killer Whales
Orca Case Study
• Orcinus orca
• All oceans of the world
• Generally colder waters in higher latitudes in both
hemispheres
• One blowhole opening
• Stable, long term social groups
• Travel in groups with fewer than 20
• Occasionally larger herds of 100 or more
Two types of social groups
• Extended family – live relatively near-shore
and move somewhat seasonally over welldefined ranges of 60 miles (resident pods)
• Solitary or small pods – appear periodically
over hundreds of miles and travel further
offshore (transient whales)
• Males grow to 30 ft
• Females rarely greater than 22 ft
• Male dorsal fin can reach nearly
7 ft in height
• Female dorsal fin are less than
3 ft high
• Live 50 or more years
• Mature in their early teenage years
• Mature females are frequently observed with
mothers and calves perhaps providing assistance
in calf rearing
• Dominant male with a small number of females
whom he mates with (last many years)
Orca
Sperm Whales
• Largest toothed whale
• Deepest divers of any air breathing mammal
Head contains oil – spermaceti
• Thought to provide buoyancy and ability to focus
sound
• Used for lamp fuel and lubricants
Thought to stun giant squid with blasts of focused
sound
Whale Predators
Suborder: Mysticeti – baleen
whales
Right whales, blue whales, gray whales, and humpback
whales
• Whiskery fringes of baleen hang from the upper jaws
and used as strainers for capturing plankton
Humpback whales
• Undertake large seasonal migrations
– They will not feed during winter migration
• Known for their whale songs
Humpback Whale Case Study
• 5th largest of the great whales
• Megaptera novaeangliae – Big Wings of New
England
• 15 ft pectoral fins
• “Hump-back” early whalers – appearance of arching
their back while diving, and the dorsal fin
• Females slightly larger than males
• 45 and 42 ft respectively
• May weigh up to a ton per foot, (nearly 40 tons –
80,000lbs)
• Calves – 10-15 ft and avg 3,000lbs at birth
• Grayish-black in color with white markings on their sides
and underside
• Eye – about the size of a large orange
• Ear is located just behind and below the eye
• No external ear flap
• Nares (blowholes) are located near the center of the head
• Elevated area in front of the blowhole – splash guard
prevents water from entering blowholes when they breathe
• Long migrations – 7,000 mile round-trip between summer
feeding and winter breeding in Hawaii
• Swim at speeds in excess of
15 miles per hr
Tubercles
• sensory nodules (golf ball size) on upper
and lower jaws and along lips
• Contains a hair follicle – function is
unknown but believed to provide some
sensory capability (vibration or
temperature)
Ventral Pleats
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Grooves located along the whale’s throat
From the tip of lower jaw to the navel
12 to 30
Allow the animal to expand its mouth (3X)
during feeding
Song of the Humpback
Songs of the Humpback Whale
How they create these sounds in unknown
• do not have functional vocal cords
• May be various valves and muscles in a series of
blind sacs in the respiratory tract
• Highest and lowest frequencies humans can hear
Song is most complex in the animal kingdom
• Only males sing
• May serve as a reproductive function to attract
females, scare away other males, or maintain distance
(territory)
• Males in a population sing the same song
Song is in a constant state of evolution
• Themes may be introduced or changed
Humpback Whale
Photo Identification:
• Determine life histories, social organization,
migratory behavior, and populations
• Underneath surface of the tail flukes
Humpback Whale
Behaviors
Blow – take a breath every 10-15 minutes
• Can remain submerged up to 45 min
• Calves must surface every 3-5 min
Spy Hop – rises vertically toward the
surface with head out of water
Tail Slap – raises tail fluke out of water
and slaps forcefully
• Repetitive and may serve as a warning
Humpback
Humpback Whale Behaviors
Pec Slap – slap water’s surface with one or
both fins
• Communication signal to other whales
Head lunge – competitive display
Peduncle slap – energetic display
• Throws its tail out of water
Reproduction
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Conceived and born in Hawaii
Mating occur en route
Gestation is 10-12 months
Sightings of calves are common during winter
Actual birth has never been documented
Calves weaned after 10 to 11 months
Mother-calf pairs are often accompanied by an
adult male escort – believed he is seeking to
reproduce with female
• Competition for females is common on breeding
grounds
• Dramatic and violent behaviors can occur
Humpback Reproduction
Humpback Whale Behaviors
Fluke up Dive – tail appears out of water in an
upward arch and slowly rolls underwater in
a dive
Breach – acrobatic display
• Uses its tail to launch itself out of water and
lands back on the surface with a splash
Feeding
• Small schooling fish (herring and
mackerel), and krill
• Consume about 1 ton (2,000lbs) of fish a
day
• Go without food during winter months
Endangered
• Protected since 1966 in North Pacific
• 2,000 and 5,000 individuals
• Since 1963 in South Pacific
Group Humpback
Sea Otter
Order: Carnivora – sea otters
Not pelagic
Order: Carnivora
Family: Ursidae
Polar Bear
• Terrestrial predators
• Observed swimming for 3 days without stopping
• Weigh up to ½ ton
Females are good mothers
• Males have no part in rearing young
• Females raise young for 2 ½ years
Males live completely solitary lives coming together with females only to
mate
• Prey on any and all cubs even their own
Warm T can be hazardous
• 4.5 inch layer of blubber
• Can overheat
Polar Bears
Sea Lion
Order: Carnoivora
Suborder: Pinnipedia: seals &
sea lions
• Sea lions (ear flaps), walruses, and seals (no
ear flaps, rear flippers point backwards)
• Carnivores
• Limbs modified as flippers
Return to land or ice to reproduce
• Large bulls dominant over “harems” of
females
Predators – Great White Sharks, Orcas, and
people
Pinnipeds
Case Study: The Hawaiian Monk
Seal
• Monachus schauinslandi
May have gotten name:
• From its round head covered with short hairs –
Friar Tuck Appearance or
• “monk-like” of solitary existence
• Life expectancy 25 – 30 years
• Females are slightly larger than males 7-8 ft
• 300-400lbs for males 400-600lbs for females
• Adults have a brownish pelage (coat)
• Juveniles are silvery gray on back and sides,
creamy white on belly, chest and throat
• Pups are black and woolly with fuzzy, short hair
• Typically have scars from sharks (tigers, gray and
white-tip reef) and from being entangled in fishing
gear
• Mature females also have scars from aggressive
males during mating
3 species
• Mediterranean (critically endangered)
• Caribbean (thought to be extinct)
• Hawaiian (endangered)
Natural History
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Cool: lying on damp sand
Very inactive when ashore
Respiration: long periods of breath holding
Low metabolic heat production
Pregnant females and nursing mothers appear
greatly upset when approached
• Cause increased deaths of seal pups
Solitary in water and onshore
• Loose groups may form on beaches when
environmental conditions are favorable
• Resting seals will avoid bodily contact with
each other (except for mothers and pups)
• Dive at least to 500 ft
• Remain underwater for as long as 20 min
while foraging
• Vocalize from pups to adults
• Alarmed adults will make a “bubbling” that
originates deep in the throat
Fewer than 1500 Hawaiian monk
seals exist today
Illegal to kill, capture, or harass monk seals
• Population declines due to
• Human activity to remote and isolated area
• Many are clubbed to death for meat, oil, and their
skin
• Death from predation by sharks
• Lower pup survival due to human disturbances
• Ciguartera intoxication
• Entanglement in fishing nets and debris
Reproduction
• Polygynous – mate a number of times with
a number of different partners
• Adult males outnumber females 3 to 1
• Mate in the water
• Give birth between mid-December and midAugust peak season in May
• Gestation is about 1 year
• Mothers due not feed while nursing
• Nurse 5 to 6 weeks
Feeding
• Fish and invertebrates
• Spiny lobster, eels, flatfish, small reef fish,
larval fish and octopus
• Eat as much as 10% of their body weight a
day
Seals
Walrus
Walruses
• Spend time on icebergs
• Highly social
Only member of the order to have tusks
• Both male and female
Manatee
Order: Sirenia
Manatees & dugongs
Not pelagic
Relative of elephants
Manatee Live
Order: Sirenia
Manatees
• Tropical rim of the Atlantic
• Immense tail flattened in horizontal plane and
rounded
• Hind limbs are lacking with front limbs flippers
• Ear openings but no external ears
• Large grinding molars, no canines or incisors
• Tiny eyes and nostrils can be closed to exclude
water
• Slow moving, gentle vegetarians
Manatee Harm
Dugongs
• Inhabit the Indian Ocean, Red Sea,
Southeast Asia, and Northern Australia
Sea Cows
• Thought to be the origin of mermaids
Close to extinction
• Accidental collisions with boats
Hunting
• Tears are said to be aphrodisiac
• Meat is delicious
• Oil that is said to be a remedy for everything from
headaches to constipation
Magnetism guides Animal Migration